Chrysanthemum

The most studied activity. Free-radical scavenging (DPPH, ORAC) is high and consistent across aqueous and ethanolic extracts, and tracks phenolic content — chlorogenic acid and luteolin glycosides especially ^{1Reference 1Lin et al. · 2010Identification of the phenolic components of chrysanthemum flower (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)}. Optimised drying raises total phenolics and flavonoids, with antioxidant activity following the phenolic yield ^{21Reference 21Sun et al et al. · 2026Metabolomics of quality components in Jinsihuangju tea during variable-temperature dryingView study →}. Human evidence is observational, not intervention data.

Gap: no controlled trials with serum biomarkers; large cultivar and preparation variability.

The most mechanistically detailed area. The water extract prevents and treats metabolic-associated fatty liver disease through pan-PPAR (α/γ/δ) agonism, cutting hepatic lipid accumulation and enzyme elevation in mice ^{2Reference 2Zhu et al et al. · 2025AnimalChrysanthemum morifolium water extract prevents and treats MAFLD via pan-PPAR agonism (mouse model)View study →}, and attenuates metabolic- and alcohol-associated liver disease via gut-microbiota modulation and PPAR-α/γ activation ^{3Reference 3Liu et al et al. · 2024AnimalChrysanthemum morifolium attenuates metabolic- and alcohol-associated liver disease via gut microbiota and PPAR-α/γ (mouse model)View study →}. Germacrane sesquiterpenoids protect against acetaminophen toxicity ^{4Reference 4Jiang et al et al. · 2026AnimalGermacrane-type sesquiterpenoids from C. morifolium protect against acetaminophen-induced liver injury (in vivo)View study →}; acacetin limits heatstroke-induced liver injury via c-Jun/PTGS2 ^{5Reference 5Shu et al et al. · 2026AnimalAcacetin attenuates heatstroke-induced acute liver injury via c-Jun/PTGS2 (mouse model). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42068089/View study →}. Flavonoids are the throughline linking liver and eye protection in the TCM “clear the liver” framing ^{6Reference 6Xiong et al et al. · 2024ReviewPharmacological effects of Chrysanthemum flavonoids on liver and eye diseases (review)View study →}.

Gap: no human RCT for liver disease; human data is observational.

The essential oil (borneol, camphor, 1,8-cineole) is active against S. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli and P. aeruginosa at moderate MICs, with some antifungal activity against Candida ^{10Reference 10Xu et al et al. · 2018In vitroChemical composition and antimicrobial activity of C. morifolium volatile oil (in vitro)View study →}. A 2025 review frames both C. morifolium and C. indicum as adjuncts in the antimicrobial-resistance context ^{11Reference 11Liang et al et al. · 2025ReviewAntimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties of C. morifolium and C. indicum (review)View study →}.

Gap: effective concentrations come from the oil, not tea — water-extract MICs are much weaker. No clinical data.

Well-mapped across pathways. Luteolin and apigenin suppress IKK / NF-κB, lowering TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6; luteolin and acacetin inhibit COX-2 ^{7Reference 7Minamisaka et al et al. · 2025In vitroAnti-inflammatory flavones (luteolin, acacetin) in Chrysanthemum capitula in primary rat hepatocytes (in vitro)View study →}. Bud extract attenuates UVB photoaging via MAPK and Nrf2 ^{8Reference 8Xu et al et al. · 2024AnimalC. morifolium bud extract alleviates UVB-induced photoaging via MAPK / Nrf2 (mouse model)View study →}. A Japanese folk decoction suppresses type I hypersensitivity (hay fever) through mast-cell stabilisation ^{9Reference 9Mitsuda et al et al. · 2026AnimalSuppressive effect of C. morifolium on type I hypersensitivity (mouse model)View study →}.

Gap: no head-to-head with NSAIDs; most pathway data is cell-line, unvalidated at oral tissue concentrations.

Luteolin and chlorogenic acid modulate eNOS, supporting mild vasodilation; PPAR-α activation contributes to lipid lowering and anti-atherosclerotic effects in animals ^{2,3Reference 2Zhu et al et al. · 2025AnimalChrysanthemum morifolium water extract prevents and treats MAFLD via pan-PPAR agonism (mouse model)View study →Reference 3Liu et al et al. · 2024AnimalChrysanthemum morifolium attenuates metabolic- and alcohol-associated liver disease via gut microbiota and PPAR-α/γ (mouse model)View study →}. Population studies associate chrysanthemum tea with cardiovascular health.

Gap: no dedicated hypertension trial. The clearest candidate for a first RCT.

Preclinical only. Apigenin and luteolin are established pro-apoptotic flavones (caspase-3/9, Bcl-2 / Bax); for chrysanthemum specifically, modified pectin shifts gut microbiota and curbs colorectal cancer cell proliferation ^{19Reference 19Wang et al et al. · 2024In vitroModified chrysanthemum pectin: effect on gut microbiota and colorectal cancer cell proliferation (in vitro). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38604432/View study →}, and polysaccharides show antitumour activity in vivo ^{18Reference 18Yu et al et al. · 2025ReviewPolysaccharides from Chrysanthemum: extraction, structure and bioactivity (review)View study →}.

Gap: no clinical data; active flavone concentrations aren’t achievable by drinking the tea.

Polysaccharides are the active fraction, driving macrophage activation, NK activity and lymphocyte proliferation in vitro; purified Gongju polysaccharides show both AChE-inhibitory and immunoregulatory activity ^{16Reference 16Wang et al et al. · 2024In vitroAcidic polysaccharides from C. morifolium cvView study →}. Mast-cell stabilisation points to modulation at the allergy interface ^{9Reference 9Mitsuda et al et al. · 2026AnimalSuppressive effect of C. morifolium on type I hypersensitivity (mouse model)View study →}; a 2025 review surveys the immunomodulatory potential ^{11Reference 11Liang et al et al. · 2025ReviewAntimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties of C. morifolium and C. indicum (review)View study →}.

Gap: direction (stimulate vs. suppress) varies by fraction and dose; no clinical data.

The most interesting emerging area, all preclinical. Extract protects HT22 hippocampal cells from oxidative stress and improves sleep in mice via GABAergic modulation — the first mechanistic link to the sedative folk use ^{13Reference 13Kim et al et al. · 2025AnimalC. morifolium protects HT22 cells from oxidative stress and enhances sleep via GABAergic modulation (mouse model)View study →}. Essential oil eases nitroglycerin-induced migraine by regulating CGRP and substance P ^{14Reference 14Meng et al et al. · 2025AnimalEssential oil of Chrysanthemi Flos alleviates nitroglycerin-induced migraine via CGRP and substance P (mouse model)View study →}. A Ganoderma / Gastrodia / Chrysanthemi Flos formula improves sleep latency and duration ^{15Reference 15Chen et al et al. · 2025AnimalGanoderma – Gastrodia – Chrysanthemi Flos formula improves sleep in mice (animal model). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41092578/View study →}; polysaccharides inhibit AChE (Alzheimer’s-relevant) ^{16Reference 16Wang et al et al. · 2024In vitroAcidic polysaccharides from C. morifolium cvView study →}; charred-form carbon dots show anxiolytic effects ^{17Reference 17Cui et al et al. · 2023AnimalAnxiolytic effects of C. morifolium Carbonisata carbon dots (mouse model)View study →}.

Gap: no human data. Sleep and migraine are the signals most worth a clinical test.

Chlorogenic acid and luteolin have anti-influenza (H1N1, H3N2) activity in cell assays; in silico work models chrysanthemum compounds against SARS-CoV-2 proteins ^{20Reference 20In silico docking of chrysanthemum-deriv · 2021https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34484639/View study →}. Polysaccharide fractions may boost antiviral host defence.

Gap: no whole-extract in vivo antiviral study — effects are inferred from constituents. No clinical data.

Directly tied to the TCM “brighten the eyes” use. Extract suppresses pathological angiogenesis in age-related macular degeneration via VEGF and NF-κB — the strongest ocular signal to date ^{12Reference 12Jiang et al et al. · 2025AnimalC. morifolium extract attenuates AMD pathological angiogenesis via VEGF / NF-κB (in vivo)View study →}. A flavonoid review notes luteolin and apigenin protect retinal cells from oxidative injury and lower intraocular pressure in animals ^{6Reference 6Xiong et al et al. · 2024ReviewPharmacological effects of Chrysanthemum flavonoids on liver and eye diseases (review)View study →}.

Gap: all preclinical; no clinical trial for any eye condition.

The “heat-clearing” action is central to TCM use but thinly tested. COX-2 / PGE₂ suppression by luteolin and acacetin gives a plausible NSAID-like mechanism, and reviews list the herb as antipyretic ^{2,11Reference 2Zhu et al et al. · 2025AnimalChrysanthemum morifolium water extract prevents and treats MAFLD via pan-PPAR agonism (mouse model)View study →Reference 11Liang et al et al. · 2025ReviewAntimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties of C. morifolium and C. indicum (review)View study →}, but dedicated fever assays are scarce. Suppression of type I hypersensitivity is related but distinct ^{9Reference 9Mitsuda et al et al. · 2026AnimalSuppressive effect of C. morifolium on type I hypersensitivity (mouse model)View study →}.

Gap: no dedicated antipyretic study identified. Plausible mechanism, weak empirical support.