Cornflower

What is Cornflower?

Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) is an annual wildflower in the daisy family, originally native to Europe and once a common weed of grain fields, hence its name. Its vivid blue flowers are widely grown ornamentally and harvested as an edible decorative flower.

Traditional & Modern Uses

Cornflower petals are used mainly for their bright colour and mild flavour, scattered over salads and desserts and added to herbal tea blends for visual appeal. In traditional herbalism the flowers were used as a gentle astringent and anti-inflammatory, and a cornflower infusion was a folk remedy as a soothing eyewash and for minor eye irritation. It also features in some smoking blends as a flavour and colour herb.

Phytochemistry

Cornflower’s defining feature is its blue pigment: a metalloanthocyanin complex called protocyanin, built around the anthocyanins† cyanidin glycosides (chiefly cyanidin-3-succinylglucoside-5-glucoside) partnered with an apigenin-derived flavone and metal ions. Alongside the pigment the capitula carry the flavonoids apigenin, luteolin and quercetin, the phenolic acids caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid, the bitter sesquiterpene lactone cnicin, and a volatile fraction dominated by sesquiterpenes with smaller amounts of chamazulene, limonene and α-pinene. The seeds add a small set of indole/phenylpropenoic-acid amides, of which moschamine is the best characterised — a cyclooxygenase-inhibiting amide rather than a petal pigment. Most published work characterises these compounds qualitatively; few give absolute concentrations for the dried petals.

Constituent Summary

Composition of the flower-heads (capitula); profiles vary with cultivar, growing site and petal colour, and most constituents are reported qualitatively rather than as fixed amounts. † = the cyanidin-based anthocyanins form protocyanin, the characteristic blue pigment marker of the species. No Data = not quantified in the sources consulted.

Pharmacology & Research

Cornflower is a lightly studied medicinal plant: the literature runs to a few dozen papers, and almost all of it is preclinical — phytochemical profiling, in vitro antioxidant assays, and a handful of cell-line and animal experiments. There are no registered clinical trials and no human efficacy data for any indication, so every score below reflects test-tube or animal work interpreted for a plant that is drunk as a petal tea or used as a strained eyewash. The most credible signal, and the one that matches the traditional ocular use, is anti-inflammatory: a 1999 study showed that flower-head polysaccharides suppress experimental oedema and interfere with complement ^{1Reference 1Garbacki et al. · 1999AnimalAnti-inflammatory and immunological effects of Centaurea cyanus flower-heads — animal model / in vivoView study →}. The most-replicated activity is antioxidant, though several groups rate cornflower’s capacity as modest relative to other edible flowers ^{2,3,6Reference 2Escher et al. · 2018In vitroChemical study, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and cytotoxic/cytoprotective activities of Centaurea cyanus L. petals aqueous extract — in vitroView study →Reference 3Pires et al. · 2018In vitroEdible flowers as sources of phenolic compounds with bioactive potential — in vitro comparative studyView study →Reference 6Kucharska et al. · 2025In vitroYogurt with cornflower (Centaurea cyanus L.) petals as a source of antioxidant compounds and dietary fibre — in vitro / food matrixView study →}. A recurring caveat threads the whole file — constituent profiles, and the biological readouts that follow, shift markedly with cultivar, petal colour and even herbicide-resistance status ^{4,7Reference 4Skowyra et al. · 2021In vitroComparative assessment of the phytochemical composition and biological activity of extracts of Centaurea cyanus, C. jacea and C. scabiosa — in vitroView study →Reference 7Wenda-Piesik et al. · 2023In vitroHerbicide resistance status impacts the profile of non-anthocyanin polyphenolics and some phytomedical properties of edible cornflower flowers — in vitroView study →}, so results from one extract do not transfer cleanly to another.

0. Evidence by indication

Support is an experimental score I’m building — a composite weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro > review) and study volume. It’s a beta: a fast way to rank strength of evidence at a glance, not a validated metric, and I’ll keep honing the formula over time. Each indication name links down to its write-up.

Indication	Support	Rests on
Anti-inflammatory	██████░░░░ 58%	Animal oedema models + in vitro COX inhibition; effect tied to a polysaccharide fraction, not the petal tea directly 1,9Reference 1Garbacki et al. · 1999AnimalAnti-inflammatory and immunological effects of Centaurea cyanus flower-heads — animal model / in vivoView study →Reference 9Sang et al. · 2012In vitroSynthesis, biological activities and bioavailability of moschamine, a safflomide-type phenylpropenoic acid amide found in Centaurea cyanus — in vitro (COX inhibition, 5-HT1 binding)View study →.
Antioxidant	██████░░░░ 55%	Many in vitro assays (DPPH, FRAP, TBARS), consistent direction but modest magnitude; no human data 2,3,6Reference 2Escher et al. · 2018In vitroChemical study, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and cytotoxic/cytoprotective activities of Centaurea cyanus L. petals aqueous extract — in vitroView study →Reference 3Pires et al. · 2018In vitroEdible flowers as sources of phenolic compounds with bioactive potential — in vitro comparative studyView study →Reference 6Kucharska et al. · 2025In vitroYogurt with cornflower (Centaurea cyanus L.) petals as a source of antioxidant compounds and dietary fibre — in vitro / food matrixView study →.
Anti-sarcopenic (muscle-wasting)	█████░░░░░ 46%	Single 2024 study, but in vitro + mouse with a mapped mechanism (CB1/CB2); aqueous extract 8Reference 8Nguyen et al. · 2024In vitroCornflower extract and its active components alleviate dexamethasone-induced muscle wasting by targeting cannabinoid receptors and modulating gut microbiota — in vitro and mouse in vivoView study →.
Antimicrobial	████░░░░░░ 42%	In vitro only, mostly Gram-positive; rated low in some studies, useful in a wound-dressing formulation in others 4,5,11Reference 4Skowyra et al. · 2021In vitroComparative assessment of the phytochemical composition and biological activity of extracts of Centaurea cyanus, C. jacea and C. scabiosa — in vitroView study →Reference 5Karim et al. · 2018In vitroEvaluation of antioxidant capacity and phenolic content in ethanolic extracts of leaves and flowers of some Asteraceae species — in vitroView study →Reference 11Yilmaz et al. · 2025In vitroInvestigation of PVA matrix hydrogel loaded with Centaurea cyanus extract for wound-dressing applications — in vitroView study →.
Skin-protective (wound / UV)	████░░░░░░ 38%	In vitro keratinocyte/fibroblast models and a hydrogel formulation; preclinical, formulation-dependent 11,12Reference 11Yilmaz et al. · 2025In vitroInvestigation of PVA matrix hydrogel loaded with Centaurea cyanus extract for wound-dressing applications — in vitroView study →Reference 12Di Sotto et al. · 2023In vitroStandardized extract from wastes of edible flowers and snail mucus ameliorate ultraviolet B-induced damage in keratinocytes — in vitroView study →.
Antiproliferative (anticancer)	███░░░░░░░ 30%	Cell lines only; driven by an isolated sesquiterpene lactone, not the whole flower 10Reference 10Keyvanloo Shahrestanaki et al. · 2019In vitroCentaurea cyanus-extracted 13-O-acetylsolstitialin A decreases Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cyclin D1/Cdk-4 expression to induce apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines — in vitroView study →.
Antihypertensive	██░░░░░░░░ 24%	A single in vitro assay on petal aqueous extract; no in vivo or human follow-up 2Reference 2Escher et al. · 2018In vitroChemical study, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and cytotoxic/cytoprotective activities of Centaurea cyanus L. petals aqueous extract — in vitroView study →.

1. Anti-inflammatory

This is the mechanistic basis for cornflower’s oldest medicinal use — the folk eyewash for minor eye irritation. Water-soluble polysaccharides isolated from the flower-heads inhibited carrageenan-, zymosan- and croton-oil-induced oedema in animal models and interfered with the complement cascade, with the active fraction composed mainly of galacturonic acid, arabinose, glucose, rhamnose and galactose ^{1Reference 1Garbacki et al. · 1999AnimalAnti-inflammatory and immunological effects of Centaurea cyanus flower-heads — animal model / in vivoView study →}. Separately, moschamine — a phenylpropenoic acid amide from the seeds — inhibited both cyclooxygenase isoforms (COX-I ~58%, COX-II ~54%) in vitro, giving a second, compound-level anti-inflammatory route ^{9Reference 9Sang et al. · 2012In vitroSynthesis, biological activities and bioavailability of moschamine, a safflomide-type phenylpropenoic acid amide found in Centaurea cyanus — in vitro (COX inhibition, 5-HT1 binding)View study →}. The catch is preparation: the animal effect belongs to a purified polysaccharide fraction and the COX effect to a seed compound, neither of which is what an infusion of blue petals mainly delivers.

Gap: No human data, and no study has tested whether a simple petal infusion — the actual traditional eyewash — reproduces the polysaccharide-fraction effect.

2. Antioxidant

Antioxidant capacity is cornflower’s most-measured property, assayed repeatedly by DPPH, FRAP, ABTS and lipid-peroxidation (TBARS) methods across petal extracts, infusions and whole-flower preparations ^{2,3,6Reference 2Escher et al. · 2018In vitroChemical study, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and cytotoxic/cytoprotective activities of Centaurea cyanus L. petals aqueous extract — in vitroView study →Reference 3Pires et al. · 2018In vitroEdible flowers as sources of phenolic compounds with bioactive potential — in vitro comparative studyView study →Reference 6Kucharska et al. · 2025In vitroYogurt with cornflower (Centaurea cyanus L.) petals as a source of antioxidant compounds and dietary fibre — in vitro / food matrixView study →}. The activity tracks the flower’s apigenin-type flavonoid and cyanidin anthocyanin content and is real but generally modest: one comparative study of Centaurea species and another of edible flowers both rated cornflower’s antioxidant potential as low-to-moderate relative to companions such as rose ^{3,4Reference 3Pires et al. · 2018In vitroEdible flowers as sources of phenolic compounds with bioactive potential — in vitro comparative studyView study →Reference 4Skowyra et al. · 2021In vitroComparative assessment of the phytochemical composition and biological activity of extracts of Centaurea cyanus, C. jacea and C. scabiosa — in vitroView study →}. Petal colour and cultivar move the numbers substantially — anthocyanin profiles differ between blue, pink and white forms — and herbicide-resistant biotypes carry higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity than susceptible ones, a reminder that “cornflower extract” is not a fixed material ^{7Reference 7Wenda-Piesik et al. · 2023In vitroHerbicide resistance status impacts the profile of non-anthocyanin polyphenolics and some phytomedical properties of edible cornflower flowers — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: All evidence is in vitro chemical assays; nothing shows a measurable antioxidant effect in a living system, let alone at intakes reachable from tea or garnish use.

3. Anti-sarcopenic (muscle-wasting)

The most substantive recent study: a 2024 investigation testing cornflower water extract against dexamethasone-induced muscle wasting in both C2C12 myotubes and mice ^{8Reference 8Nguyen et al. · 2024In vitroCornflower extract and its active components alleviate dexamethasone-induced muscle wasting by targeting cannabinoid receptors and modulating gut microbiota — in vitro and mouse in vivoView study →}. The extract reduced oxidative stress, promoted myofibre growth and lifted ATP production in cells, and in vivo it improved grip strength and exercise performance while shifting muscle gene expression toward protein synthesis. Mechanistically the work points to cannabinoid receptors — the constituent graveobioside A inhibited CB1 and upregulated CB2 — plus a gut-microbiome shift, giving a coherent, testable model rather than a bare screening hit.

Gap: A single research group, one animal model of drug-induced (not age-related) wasting, and no human follow-up; promising but unreplicated.

4. Antimicrobial

Results here are genuinely mixed. A comparative Centaurea study found the ethanol extract of C. cyanus flowers to have low antimicrobial activity, well below its congener C. scabiosa ^{4Reference 4Skowyra et al. · 2021In vitroComparative assessment of the phytochemical composition and biological activity of extracts of Centaurea cyanus, C. jacea and C. scabiosa — in vitroView study →}. Against that, a C. cyanus extract loaded into a PVA wound-dressing hydrogel produced a Staphylococcus aureus inhibition zone (16.9 mm) marginally larger than the ampicillin control, and an edible-flower survey found cornflower’s antibacterial capacity moderate ^{5,11Reference 5Karim et al. · 2018In vitroEvaluation of antioxidant capacity and phenolic content in ethanolic extracts of leaves and flowers of some Asteraceae species — in vitroView study →Reference 11Yilmaz et al. · 2025In vitroInvestigation of PVA matrix hydrogel loaded with Centaurea cyanus extract for wound-dressing applications — in vitroView study →}. Cornflower honey shows antibacterial activity too, but that is driven by hydrogen-peroxide generation typical of honey rather than by flower-specific compounds ^{13Reference 13Truchado et al. · 2012In vitroFloral markers of cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) honey and its peroxide antibacterial activity — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: Activity is inconsistent across studies and preparations, confined to in vitro assays, and strongest only when the extract is concentrated into a formulation — not at tea strength.

5. Skin-protective (wound / UV)

Two preclinical lines support a topical/cosmeceutical role. Polyphenols from cornflower (as part of an edible-flower-waste blend) boosted the antioxidant activity of a snail-mucus formulation and reduced ROS, lipid peroxidation and glutathione depletion in UVB-exposed keratinocytes ^{12Reference 12Di Sotto et al. · 2023In vitroStandardized extract from wastes of edible flowers and snail mucus ameliorate ultraviolet B-induced damage in keratinocytes — in vitroView study →}. In a separate study a cornflower-loaded PVA hydrogel released chlorogenic acid and kaempferol, was non-cytotoxic to skin fibroblasts and produced a ~19% proliferative effect consistent with a wound-healing role ^{11Reference 11Yilmaz et al. · 2025In vitroInvestigation of PVA matrix hydrogel loaded with Centaurea cyanus extract for wound-dressing applications — in vitroView study →}. Both are in vitro, formulation-based demonstrations rather than tests of the plant applied on its own.

Gap: No in vivo wound-healing or photoprotection data, and the effects were shown for engineered formulations, not a simple cornflower preparation.

6. Antiproliferative (anticancer)

The cytotoxic signal is entirely compound- and cell-line-level. 13-O-acetylsolstitialin A, a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from C. cyanus, was cytotoxic to MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast-cancer cells, lowering the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cyclin D1/Cdk-4 expression to trigger apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest ^{10Reference 10Keyvanloo Shahrestanaki et al. · 2019In vitroCentaurea cyanus-extracted 13-O-acetylsolstitialin A decreases Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cyclin D1/Cdk-4 expression to induce apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines — in vitroView study →}. This is a clean mechanistic result for an isolated molecule, but it says little about the whole flower: the compound is a minor constituent, and edible-flower antiproliferative screens rated cornflower among the weaker performers ^{3Reference 3Pires et al. · 2018In vitroEdible flowers as sources of phenolic compounds with bioactive potential — in vitro comparative studyView study →}.

Gap: Isolated-compound cell-line data only; no evidence the intact flower or any realistic preparation has anticancer relevance.

7. Antihypertensive

A single optimisation study of C. cyanus petal aqueous extract reported anti-hypertensive activity (enzyme-inhibition assay) alongside antioxidant, anti-haemolytic and cytoprotective effects ^{2Reference 2Escher et al. · 2018In vitroChemical study, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and cytotoxic/cytoprotective activities of Centaurea cyanus L. petals aqueous extract — in vitroView study →}. It is one in vitro readout in one paper, with no dose-response in a living system and no replication.

Gap: Thinnest of the scored indications — a lone in vitro assay, no in vivo or clinical support.

Mechanisms

Mechanism	Drives	Key compounds
Complement interference; oedema suppression	anti-inflammatory (eyewash use)	polysaccharides (pectic — galacturonic acid / arabinose / rhamnose)
COX-I / COX-II inhibition; 5-HT1 binding	anti-inflammatory	moschamine
Radical scavenging; NF-κB / COX modulation	antioxidant, anti-inflammatory	apigenin, luteolin, quercetin
Metal-chelating radical scavenging	antioxidant, pigment/marker	cyanidin glycosides (protocyanin complex)
ROS reduction; keratinocyte protection	antioxidant, skin-protective	caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid
Bax/Bcl-2 ↓, cell-cycle arrest; bitter tonic	antiproliferative (in vitro)	13-O-acetylsolstitialin A, cnicin

Clinical trials

No registered clinical trials of Centaurea cyanus in humans were identified for any indication — the evidence base is entirely preclinical (phytochemistry, in vitro assays and a few animal studies). A ClinicalTrials.gov search for “Centaurea cyanus” and “cornflower” returned no studies; the count below reflects the published experimental literature.

Completed	Planned	Terminated	Preclinical
0	0	0	~25 (phytochemical + in vitro, a few animal)

Last checked: July 2026.

Safety

Cornflower is a low-risk edible flower with no reported systemic toxicity at culinary or tea quantities, and it holds no approved medicinal indication with a defined safe dose — there is no EMA/HMPC community herbal monograph and no German Commission E approval for Cyani flos, so the eyewash use is traditional rather than regulator-endorsed. The chief documented risk is allergic reaction in people sensitised to the Asteraceae (daisy) family — a class cross-reactivity that can extend to ragweed, chamomile and marigold rather than a cornflower-specific finding ^{4Reference 4Skowyra et al. · 2021In vitroComparative assessment of the phytochemical composition and biological activity of extracts of Centaurea cyanus, C. jacea and C. scabiosa — in vitroView study →}. Because the flowers are frequently sold dried and loose, microbial load is a practical concern: a survey of family-farm dried herbs including C. cyanus found mesophilic-bacteria and coliform counts exceeding food limits in a meaningful share of samples (mesophilic bacteria in ~29% of samples) ^{17Reference 17Vitullo et al. · 2011Microbiological and toxicological quality of dried herbs including Centaurea cyanus — analytical surveyView study →}, so any material used as an eyewash should be freshly prepared, strained and hygienically handled — an eyewash made from contaminated, unstrained material is an eye-infection risk. The one modern anti-inflammatory finding is mechanistic rather than a safety concern: the seed alkaloid moschamine binds 5-HT1 receptors in vitro ^{9Reference 9Sang et al. · 2012In vitroSynthesis, biological activities and bioavailability of moschamine, a safflomide-type phenylpropenoic acid amide found in Centaurea cyanus — in vitro (COX inhibition, 5-HT1 binding)View study →}, but no functional consequence at tea or garnish intakes has been shown.

Scope: no pharmacokinetic, herb–drug interaction or CYP450 study of Centaurea cyanus was found, so interactions are not assessed — absence of reports is not evidence of safety. No reproductive, teratogenicity or lactation data were located either. A brine-shrimp lethality assay of the seed indole alkaloids showed only general low-level toxicity ^{16Reference 16Sarker et al. · 2001Indole alkaloids from the seeds of Centaurea cyanus (Asteraceae) — moschamine, centcyamine; brine-shrimp toxicity assayView study →}.

Pregnancy & lactation

Not assessed — no data. No reproductive, developmental or lactation study of cornflower exists. This is a statement of missing evidence, not a safety clearance; treat culinary petal use as it has traditionally been treated, and avoid concentrated or medicinal preparations without professional advice.

References

1. Garbacki, N., Gloaguen, V., Damas, J., Bodart, P., Tits, M., & Angenot, L. (1999). Anti-inflammatory and immunological effects of Centaurea cyanus flower-heads — animal model / in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 68(1–3), 235–241. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10624883/
2. Escher, G. B., Marques, M. B., do Carmo, M. A. V., et al. (2018). Chemical study, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and cytotoxic/cytoprotective activities of Centaurea cyanus L. petals aqueous extract — in vitro. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 118, 439–453. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29787846/
3. Pires, T. C. S. P., Barros, L., Santos-Buelga, C., & Ferreira, I. C. F. R. (2018). Edible flowers as sources of phenolic compounds with bioactive potential — in vitro comparative study. Food Research International. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29433250/
4. Skowyra, M., Falguera, V., Azman, N. A. M., Segovia, F., & Almajano, M. P. (2021). Comparative assessment of the phytochemical composition and biological activity of extracts of Centaurea cyanus, C. jacea and C. scabiosa — in vitro. Plants (Basel), 10(7), 1279. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34201790/
5. Karim, N., et al. (2018). Evaluation of antioxidant capacity and phenolic content in ethanolic extracts of leaves and flowers of some Asteraceae species — in vitro. Recent Patents on Food, Nutrition & Agriculture. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29065850/
6. Kucharska, A. Z., et al. (2025). Yogurt with cornflower (Centaurea cyanus L.) petals as a source of antioxidant compounds and dietary fibre — in vitro / food matrix. Journal of Dairy Science. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39662809/
7. Wenda-Piesik, A., et al. (2023). Herbicide resistance status impacts the profile of non-anthocyanin polyphenolics and some phytomedical properties of edible cornflower flowers — in vitro. Scientific Reports. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37460793/
8. Nguyen, N. B., Le, T. T., Kang, S. W., et al. (2024). Cornflower extract and its active components alleviate dexamethasone-induced muscle wasting by targeting cannabinoid receptors and modulating gut microbiota — in vitro and mouse in vivo. Nutrients, 16(8), 1130. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38674820/
9. Sang, S., et al. (2012). Synthesis, biological activities and bioavailability of moschamine, a safflomide-type phenylpropenoic acid amide found in Centaurea cyanus — in vitro (COX inhibition, 5-HT1 binding). Natural Product Research, 26(15), 1372–1378. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21978225/
10. Keyvanloo Shahrestanaki, M., Bagheri, M., Ghanadian, M., Aghaei, M., & Jafari, S. M. (2019). Centaurea cyanus-extracted 13-O-acetylsolstitialin A decreases Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cyclin D1/Cdk-4 expression to induce apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines — in vitro. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 120(10), 18309–18319. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31161672/
11. Yilmaz, H., et al. (2025). Investigation of PVA matrix hydrogel loaded with Centaurea cyanus extract for wound-dressing applications — in vitro. Gels. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40277700/
12. Di Sotto, A., et al. (2023). Standardized extract from wastes of edible flowers and snail mucus ameliorate ultraviolet B-induced damage in keratinocytes — in vitro. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37373341/
13. Truchado, P., et al. (2012). Floral markers of cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) honey and its peroxide antibacterial activity — in vitro. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23140532/
14. Takeda, K. (2006). Blue metal complex pigments involved in blue flower colour (protocyanin) — review. Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series B, 82(4), 142–154. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25792777/
15. Shiono, M., Matsugaki, N., & Takeda, K. (2005). Components of protocyanin, a blue pigment from the blue flowers of Centaurea cyanus — structural study. Phytochemistry, 66(15), 1607–1613. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16005311/
16. Sarker, S. D., Laird, A., Nahar, L., Kumarasamy, Y., & Jaspars, M. (2001). Indole alkaloids from the seeds of Centaurea cyanus (Asteraceae) — moschamine, centcyamine; brine-shrimp toxicity assay. Phytochemistry, 57(8), 1273–1276. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11454358/
17. Vitullo, M., Ripabelli, G., Fanelli, I., Tamburro, M., Delfine, S., & Sammarco, M. L. (2011). Microbiological and toxicological quality of dried herbs including Centaurea cyanus — analytical survey. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 52(6), 573–580. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21375549/