Dagga

What is Dagga?

Dagga, or klip dagga (Leonotis nepetifolia), is a tall annual herb in the mint family with whorls of spiky orange flowers, native to Africa and naturalised throughout the tropics. The name “dagga” is used in southern Africa for several mildly psychoactive plants (and, confusingly, for cannabis), but this species is a distinct plant in the genus Leonotis, closely related to wild dagga (Leonotis leonurus).

Traditional & Modern Uses

In African and Caribbean folk traditions the plant has been used as a remedy for coughs, fevers and as a general tonic ^{24,25Reference 24Clement YN et al. · 2015ObservationalAn ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Trinidad — ethnobotanical/observational surveyView study →Reference 25Gumisiriza H et al. · 2021Medicinal plants used to treat “African” diseases by the local communities of Bwambara sub-county in Rukungiri District, Western Uganda — ethnobotanical surveyView study →}, and the dried leaves and flowers are smoked for a mild euphoric, relaxing effect that is sometimes compared to a faint version of cannabis. Some people use it as a legal herbal smoke. Its effects are generally reported as subtle.

Pharmacology & Research

The research base for dagga (Leonotis nepetifolia) is small and almost entirely preclinical: roughly two dozen primary studies, dominated by phytochemistry and in vitro bioassays, with a handful of rodent behavioural experiments and no human clinical trials of any indication. The most developed threads are anti-inflammatory pharmacology — where two isolated furanolabdane diterpenoids (nepetaefuran, leonotinin) and the leaf essential oil suppress NF-κB signalling in cell models ^{4,5,6Reference 4Ueda F et al. · 2015In vitroNepetaefuran and leonotinin isolated from Leonotis nepetaefolia RView study →Reference 5Mohanta O et al. · 2025In vitroAnti-inflammatory activity of Leonotis nepetifolia leaf essential oil in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and its molecular mechanism of action — in vitro macrophage modelView study →Reference 6Sitarek P et al. · 2023In vitroLeonotis nepetifolia transformed root extract reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines and promotes tissue repair in vitro — in vitro airway/gingival cell modelView study →} — and the plant’s traditional nervous-system use, which is partially echoed by antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects of methanol extracts in mice ^{17,18Reference 17Arrieta-Báez D et al. · 2022AnimalAntidepressant-like effects of a methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model)View study →Reference 18Ayanwuyi LO et al. · 2016AnimalPreliminary studies on the behavioural effects of the methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia Linn stem in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model)View study →}. Notably, no published pharmacological study demonstrates the euphoric or “cannabis-like” psychoactivity for which the smoked herb is best known; the compounds responsible remain unidentified. Almost all data come from extracts, essential oils, or isolated compounds rather than the smoked leaf/flower that is the plant’s actual mode of use, so preparation mismatch is the dominant caveat throughout.

0. Evidence by indication

Support is an experimental score I’m building — a composite weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro > review) and study volume. It’s a beta: a fast way to rank strength of evidence at a glance, not a validated metric, and I’ll keep honing the formula over time. Each indication name links down to its write-up.

Indication	Support	Rests on
Anti-inflammatory	███████░░░ 68%	Reproduced NF-κB/iNOS/COX-2 suppression by isolated diterpenoids and leaf EO across independent cell models; no human data, EO ≠ smoked leaf.
Antimicrobial	███████░░░ 66%	Broad in vitro activity (bacteria, fungi, dermatophytes) across leaf, flower and essential-oil preparations; moderate MICs, no in vivo confirmation.
Antidepressant & anxiolytic	██████░░░░ 62%	Two independent mouse behavioural studies + CNS receptor binding; methanol/stem extracts, not the smoked herb; small studies.
Antioxidant	██████░░░░ 58%	Consistent DPPH/radical-scavenging and Nrf2 induction across many extracts; assay-level only, no biological antioxidant endpoint in vivo.
Anticancer	█████░░░░░ 54%	Cytotoxicity across several cell lines + one murine sarcoma model, but driven by isolated cirsiliol or lab-transformed roots, not the whole herb.
Antispasmodic	████░░░░░░ 42%	Single 1991 isolated-tissue study showing smooth-muscle relaxation/antagonism; mechanism unresolved, no replication.
Antileishmanial	███░░░░░░░ 34%	One in vitro study; moderate IC50 against Leishmania amazonensis amastigotes, leaf/root extracts only.
Antidiabetic	███░░░░░░░ 28%	Constituent-level only — α-glucosidase inhibition traced to triterpenoids/anthraquinones that are minor, not characteristic, markers.

1. Anti-inflammatory

This is the plant’s best-characterised pharmacology. Two furanolabdane diterpenoids isolated from the leaves, nepetaefuran and leonotinin, suppressed LPS-induced nitric oxide and CCL2 production in macrophages by inhibiting NF-κB transcriptional activity without affecting the MAP-kinase arm — placing the effect at the level of NF-κB transactivation ^{4Reference 4Ueda F et al. · 2015In vitroNepetaefuran and leonotinin isolated from Leonotis nepetaefolia RView study →}. A 2025 study of the leaf essential oil (predominantly germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene and phytol) reproduced this in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages: it lowered TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS and COX-2, dampened intracellular ROS, suppressed TLR4/MyD88 and NF-κB p65, and induced the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant axis ^{5Reference 5Mohanta O et al. · 2025In vitroAnti-inflammatory activity of Leonotis nepetifolia leaf essential oil in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and its molecular mechanism of action — in vitro macrophage modelView study →}. Separately, transformed-root extracts blunted rhinovirus-induced IL-6 and IL-1β in airway and gingival cell lines ^{6Reference 6Sitarek P et al. · 2023In vitroLeonotis nepetifolia transformed root extract reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines and promotes tissue repair in vitro — in vitro airway/gingival cell modelView study →}, which is mechanistically consistent with the traditional use for bronchitis and asthma ^{4Reference 4Ueda F et al. · 2015In vitroNepetaefuran and leonotinin isolated from Leonotis nepetaefolia RView study →}.

Gap: All data are in vitro (plus one root-culture system). No animal model of inflammation and no human data exist, and the most complete study used the essential oil rather than the smoked or infused leaf.

2. Antimicrobial

Antimicrobial screening is the most-replicated activity, spanning independent groups and preparations. A hydroethanolic leaf extract showed good broad-spectrum antibacterial activity (MIC 6.25 µg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis and Shigella flexneri; 25 µg/mL against Helicobacter pylori) acting at least partly by perturbing bacterial membrane permeability, and was not cytotoxic to mammalian cells (IC50 > 200 µg/mL) ^{8Reference 8Oliveira DM et al. · 2015In vitroAntibacterial mode of action of the hydroethanolic extract of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}. Essential oils are consistently active against Gram-positive bacteria and, notably, fungi and dermatophytes ^{7,9,12Reference 7Gopal RH et al. · 1994In vitroAntimicrobial activity of essential oil of Leonotis nepetaefolia — in vitroView study →Reference 9Casiglia S et al. · 2014In vitroActivity against microorganisms affecting cellulosic objects of the volatile constituents of Leonotis nepetaefolia from Nicaragua — in vitroView study →Reference 12Adolpho LO et al. · 2024In vitroChemical profile and antimicrobial activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}, with germacrene D and β-caryophyllene the dominant volatiles ^{12Reference 12Adolpho LO et al. · 2024In vitroChemical profile and antimicrobial activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}. Extracts from different anatomical parts also inhibited Bacillus cereus, S. aureus and Candida ^{10Reference 10de Oliveira DP et al. · 2021In vitroExploring the bioactivity potential of Leonotis nepetifolia: phytochemical composition, antimicrobial and antileishmanial activities of extracts from different anatomical parts — in vitroView study →}, flower-bud extracts inhibited a panel of bacterial and fungal pathogens ^{11Reference 11Nagaraja SK et al. · 2023In vitroPhytochemical analysis, GC-MS profiling, and in vitro evaluation of biological applications of different solvent extracts of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. flower buds — in vitroView study →}, and flower powder fully suppressed aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus at 10 mg/mL ^{13Reference 13Abubacker MN · 2003In vitroEfficacy of Euphorbia splendens and Leonotis nepetaefolia on aflatoxin-producing fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: Activity is moderate (µg–mg/mL range) and entirely in vitro; no infection model, no systemic exposure data, and the smoked route delivers none of these tested preparations.

3. Antidepressant & anxiolytic

This is the clearest experimental echo of the plant’s traditional calming use, though still preclinical. A methanol extract produced antidepressant-like effects in mice, reducing immobility in the tail-suspension and forced-swim tests and — over 28 days — improving body-weight gain and lowering corticosterone in chronically stressed animals, implicating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; the extract’s main metabolites were nepetaefolin, methoxynepetaefolin and luteolin-7-glucoside ^{17Reference 17Arrieta-Báez D et al. · 2022AnimalAntidepressant-like effects of a methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model)View study →}. An earlier study of a methanol stem extract found anxiolytic-type signals (reduced rearing in the staircase test, prolongation of diazepam-induced sleep) at 150 mg/kg, with a high intraperitoneal LD50 of 3.8 g/kg ^{18Reference 18Ayanwuyi LO et al. · 2016AnimalPreliminary studies on the behavioural effects of the methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia Linn stem in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model)View study →}. Isolated bis-spirolabdane diterpenoids from the leaves were profiled against CNS G-protein-coupled receptors in vitro, providing a candidate molecular basis for central activity ^{3Reference 3Li J et al. · 2012In vitroBis-spirolabdane diterpenoids from Leonotis nepetaefolia — in vitro CNS G-protein-coupled receptor bindingView study →}, and the flavone cirsiliol — a marker of this species — is documented as sedative/hypnotic in the wider literature ^{19Reference 19de Oliveira AP et al. · 2019Influence of light intensity, fertilizing and season on the cirsiliol content, a chemical marker of Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae) — cultivation/chemical markerView study →}.

Gap: Two small rodent studies, no dose-response into humans, and — critically — none of this demonstrates the euphoric/psychoactive effect attributed to the smoked herb; the actives behind that reputation are unidentified.

4. Antioxidant

Radical-scavenging activity is reproduced across many preparations but stays at the assay level. Flower-bud methanol extract reached 74% DPPH inhibition at 1000 µg/mL in a concentration-dependent manner ^{11Reference 11Nagaraja SK et al. · 2023In vitroPhytochemical analysis, GC-MS profiling, and in vitro evaluation of biological applications of different solvent extracts of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. flower buds — in vitroView study →}, and L. nepetifolia was among the more active species in brine-shrimp lethality within a Caatinga-plant antioxidant screen ^{14Reference 14David JP et al. · 2007In vitroRadical scavenging, antioxidant and cytotoxic activity of Brazilian Caatinga plants — in vitro DPPH/brine-shrimpView study →}. Transformed- and normal-root extracts scavenged radicals and protected HUVEC cells against H2O2-induced DNA damage ^{15Reference 15Kowalczyk T et al. · 2021In vitroPreliminary phytochemical analysis and evaluation of the biological activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}, and silver-nanoparticle preparations showed concentration-dependent DPPH activity ^{16Reference 16Nagaraja SK et al. · 2022In vitroLeonotis nepetifolia flower bud extract mediated green synthesis of silver nanoparticles, their characterization, and in vitro evaluation of biological applications — in vitroView study →}. Mechanistically, the leaf essential oil raised endogenous SOD, GSH, GPx and catalase and activated Nrf2/HO-1 in macrophages ^{5Reference 5Mohanta O et al. · 2025In vitroAnti-inflammatory activity of Leonotis nepetifolia leaf essential oil in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and its molecular mechanism of action — in vitro macrophage modelView study →}, linking the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory signals.

Gap: Evidence is almost entirely chemical-assay (DPPH) or cell-line; there is no in vivo oxidative-stress endpoint, and several positive results come from engineered preparations (nanoparticles, transformed roots) unrelated to traditional use.

5. Anticancer

Cytotoxic signals recur but are constituent- or construct-driven rather than whole-herb. The species-marker flavone cirsiliol, solubilised as a β-cyclodextrin complex, inhibited PC3, HCT-116 and HL-60 human lines and slowed tumour growth in mice bearing sarcoma S-180 without the toxicity of doxorubicin ^{20Reference 20Oliveira AP et al. · 2019In vitroOliveira AP, Silva JC, Silva RM, et al. (2019). β-Cyclodextrin complex improves the bioavailability and antitumor potential of cirsiliol, a flavone isolated from Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae) — in vitro plus in vivo murine sarcoma model. Heliyon. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31720439/View study →}. Methanolic transformed-root extracts were cytotoxic to A549 lung, HCC1937 breast and NALM-6 leukaemia cells ^{15Reference 15Kowalczyk T et al. · 2021In vitroPreliminary phytochemical analysis and evaluation of the biological activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}, and against melanoma cells raised p53 expression and pro-apoptotic activity, with docking implicating the identified phenolics ^{21Reference 21Merecz-Sadowska A et al. · 2022In vitroIn vitro and in silico studies on Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}; flower-bud extracts were also anti-proliferative in vitro ^{11Reference 11Nagaraja SK et al. · 2023In vitroPhytochemical analysis, GC-MS profiling, and in vitro evaluation of biological applications of different solvent extracts of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. flower buds — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: The strongest result depends on a solubility-enhanced isolated molecule, and the cell-line effects come from Rhizobium-transformed root cultures — neither reflects the plant as used. IC50 values for crude root extract are high (760–980 µg/mL). No clinical relevance is established.

6. Antispasmodic

A single 1991 study examined hydroalcoholic and tea extracts of the stem on isolated rat and guinea-pig tissue. Both relaxed KCl-precontracted rat uterus (the hydroalcoholic extract ~2-fold more potent, an effect potentiated by IBMX and unaffected by propranolol/forskolin) and produced rightward, largely non-competitive shifts of agonist curves (bradykinin, acetylcholine, BaCl2) in uterus and guinea-pig ileum ^{2Reference 2Calixto JB et al. · 1991In vitroEffect of crude extracts from Leonotis nepetaefolia (Labiatae) on rat and guinea-pig smooth muscle and rat cardiac muscle — in vitro isolated-tissue studyView study →}. The pattern suggests a non-specific smooth-muscle relaxant/spasmolytic action.

Gap: One isolated-tissue study, mechanism unresolved and non-specific, never replicated; the uterine activity is also a pregnancy-safety flag rather than a therapeutic endorsement.

7. Antileishmanial

Hydroethanolic extracts from different plant parts were tested against Leishmania amazonensis. Leaf and root extracts were the most active against the intracellular amastigote form (IC50 32.9 and 57.7 µg/mL respectively), the stage relevant to human disease, alongside their antibacterial and anti-Candida activity; the extracts contained apigenin, cirsiliol and several luteolin glycosides ^{10Reference 10de Oliveira DP et al. · 2021In vitroExploring the bioactivity potential of Leonotis nepetifolia: phytochemical composition, antimicrobial and antileishmanial activities of extracts from different anatomical parts — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: A single in vitro study with moderate potency and no selectivity-index or in vivo follow-up; strictly a preliminary antiprotozoal signal.

8. Antidiabetic

The signal is constituent-level and incidental. In a phytochemical study of the aerial parts, several isolated compounds — the anthraquinone chrysophanol and the sesquiterpenoid (+)-ar-turmerone — inhibited α-glucosidase with IC50 values (4.9 and 5.3 µg/mL) well below the acarbose control, while the newly described triterpenoid nepetifoliol itself was inactive ^{22Reference 22Nguyen TK et al. · 2023In vitroNepetifoliol — a new glutinane-triterpenoid from Leonotis nepetifolia — phytochemistry, in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitionView study →}.

Gap: Enzyme-inhibition by minor, non-characteristic constituents in one study — no cellular, animal or glycaemic data, and no evidence these compounds reach relevant levels in any preparation of the herb.

Mechanisms

Mechanism	Drives	Key compounds
NF-κB transactivation ↓, iNOS / NO ↓, CCL2 ↓; CNS GPCR binding	anti-inflammatory, sedative / antidepressant	furanolabdane diterpenoids — nepetaefuran, leonotinin, nepetaefolin, leonotin, dubiin
Radical scavenging, COX-2 / NF-κB ↓, cytotoxic / pro-apoptotic, sedative-hypnotic	antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, CNS	flavones — apigenin, cirsiliol, luteolin
Bacterial / fungal membrane disruption, TLR4/MyD88 ↓, Nrf2/HO-1 ↑	antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant	essential-oil volatiles — germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, phytol
α-Glucosidase inhibition	antidiabetic (constituent-level)	ar-turmerone, chrysophanol, nepetifoliol, friedelin
Radical scavenging, DNA protection, cytotoxicity	antioxidant, anticancer (transformed-root only)	root phenolics — rosmarinic acid, (+)-catechin, p-coumaric acid

Clinical trials

No registered clinical trials were identified for Leonotis nepetifolia on ClinicalTrials.gov for any indication — the evidence base is entirely preclinical. The only human data is an Ayurvedic taste (rasa) assessment in healthy volunteers ^{26Reference 26Pushpan R · 2014ObservationalRasa Nirdhāraṇa (assessment of taste) of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}, not an efficacy trial.

Completed	Planned	Terminated	Preclinical
0	0	0	~25

Last checked: July 2026.

Phytochemistry

Like the rest of its genus, Leonotis nepetifolia is defined by labdane (and bis-spirolabdane) diterpenoids: the furanolabdanes nepetaefolin, leonotin, leonotinin, nepetaefuran and dubiin are the characteristic markers ^{3,22Reference 3Li J et al. · 2012In vitroBis-spirolabdane diterpenoids from Leonotis nepetaefolia — in vitro CNS G-protein-coupled receptor bindingView study →Reference 22Nguyen TK et al. · 2023In vitroNepetifoliol — a new glutinane-triterpenoid from Leonotis nepetifolia — phytochemistry, in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitionView study →}. These are accompanied by flavones such as apigenin, cirsiliol — the validated chemical marker of the species ^{19Reference 19de Oliveira AP et al. · 2019Influence of light intensity, fertilizing and season on the cirsiliol content, a chemical marker of Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae) — cultivation/chemical markerView study →} — and luteolin, the last largely as its 7-O-glucoside ^{10,17Reference 10de Oliveira DP et al. · 2021In vitroExploring the bioactivity potential of Leonotis nepetifolia: phytochemical composition, antimicrobial and antileishmanial activities of extracts from different anatomical parts — in vitroView study →Reference 17Arrieta-Báez D et al. · 2022AnimalAntidepressant-like effects of a methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model)View study →}. The leaf essential oil is dominated by the sesquiterpenes germacrene D and β-caryophyllene ^{12Reference 12Adolpho LO et al. · 2024In vitroChemical profile and antimicrobial activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}. The bitter diterpene marrubiin, prominent in related Leonotis, is reported at the genus level. The alkaloid leonurine is frequently named in popular sources but has not been confirmed by rigorous chemical analysis of this species ^{10,22Reference 10de Oliveira DP et al. · 2021In vitroExploring the bioactivity potential of Leonotis nepetifolia: phytochemical composition, antimicrobial and antileishmanial activities of extracts from different anatomical parts — in vitroView study →Reference 22Nguyen TK et al. · 2023In vitroNepetifoliol — a new glutinane-triterpenoid from Leonotis nepetifolia — phytochemistry, in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitionView study →}, and the compounds behind its mild reputed psychoactivity remain unestablished.

Constituent Summary

No reliable quantitative content has been published for these compounds, so amounts are given as No Data; proportions vary with provenance, plant part and season. † marks the nepetaefolin-series furanolabdanes, the diterpenoids characteristic of the genus. The “reported” note on leonurine flags that its presence is asserted in popular literature but not confirmed analytically. The middle column gives the constituent type.

Safety

Formal safety data for dagga are sparse: there are no human clinical or toxicology studies, and no established therapeutic dose. Acute rodent work suggests low systemic toxicity — the intraperitoneal LD50 of a methanol stem extract was 3.8 g/kg in mice ^{18Reference 18Ayanwuyi LO et al. · 2016AnimalPreliminary studies on the behavioural effects of the methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia Linn stem in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model)View study →} — and a leaf hydroethanolic extract was non-cytotoxic to mammalian cells in vitro (IC50 > 200 µg/mL) ^{8Reference 8Oliveira DM et al. · 2015In vitroAntibacterial mode of action of the hydroethanolic extract of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) RView study →}. Against that, an isolated-tissue study shows stem extracts relax and alter the contractility of rat uterine muscle ^{2Reference 2Calixto JB et al. · 1991In vitroEffect of crude extracts from Leonotis nepetaefolia (Labiatae) on rat and guinea-pig smooth muscle and rat cardiac muscle — in vitro isolated-tissue studyView study →}, and a 2026 zebrafish-embryo study found the methanol extract — and especially the ethyl-acetate fraction of the flowers — caused embryotoxic and teratogenic effects, with acetylcholinesterase, lipid-peroxidation and cardiotoxicity signals ^{23Reference 23Adolpho LF et al. · 2026AnimalComprehensive analysis of Leonotis nepetifolia flower extracts: phytochemical composition and toxicity in zebrafish embryos — in vivo zebrafish toxicityView study →}. Because dagga is most often smoked, the primary real-world hazard is inhaled combustion products (respiratory irritation), a route for which no controlled safety data exist, and the compounds behind its reputed psychoactivity remain unidentified — so its inhalation risk is uncharacterised rather than demonstrably absent.

Herb–drug interactions have not been assessed: no CYP450 or pharmacokinetic study exists for this species, so the absence of reported interactions is a gap, not a clearance. As a mint-family (Lamiaceae) plant, cross-sensitivity in people allergic to related herbs is plausible, though no case reports were found.

Pregnancy & lactation

Avoid. This is an evidence-based caution rather than a purely precautionary one: flower extracts and fractions were embryotoxic and teratogenic in a zebrafish-embryo model ^{23Reference 23Adolpho LF et al. · 2026AnimalComprehensive analysis of Leonotis nepetifolia flower extracts: phytochemical composition and toxicity in zebrafish embryos — in vivo zebrafish toxicityView study →}, and stem extracts altered uterine smooth-muscle contractility in vitro ^{2Reference 2Calixto JB et al. · 1991In vitroEffect of crude extracts from Leonotis nepetaefolia (Labiatae) on rat and guinea-pig smooth muscle and rat cardiac muscle — in vitro isolated-tissue studyView study →}. No human pregnancy data exist, and lactation has not been assessed.

References

1. Purushothaman KK, Vasanth S, Connolly JD. (1976). 4,6,7-Trimethoxy-5-methylchromen-2-one, a new coumarin from Leonotis nepetaefolia — phytochemistry, isolation. J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1034648/
2. Calixto JB, Yunes RA, Rae GA. (1991). Effect of crude extracts from Leonotis nepetaefolia (Labiatae) on rat and guinea-pig smooth muscle and rat cardiac muscle — in vitro isolated-tissue study. J Pharm Pharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1681066/
3. Li J, Xu PB, Wang Y, et al. (2012). Bis-spirolabdane diterpenoids from Leonotis nepetaefolia — in vitro CNS G-protein-coupled receptor binding. J Nat Prod. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22475308/
4. Ueda F, Iizuka K, Tago K, et al. (2015). Nepetaefuran and leonotinin isolated from Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br. potently inhibit the LPS signaling pathway by suppressing the transactivation of NF-κB — in vitro mechanistic. Int Immunopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26319953/
5. Mohanta O, Jena AK, Das PK, et al. (2025). Anti-inflammatory activity of Leonotis nepetifolia leaf essential oil in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and its molecular mechanism of action — in vitro macrophage model. Sci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41006625/
6. Sitarek P, Kowalczyk T, Wielanek M, et al. (2023). Leonotis nepetifolia transformed root extract reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines and promotes tissue repair in vitro — in vitro airway/gingival cell model. Int J Environ Res Public Health. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36981614/
7. Gopal RH, Vasanth S, Vasudevan SV. (1994). Antimicrobial activity of essential oil of Leonotis nepetaefolia — in vitro. Anc Sci Life. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22556678/
8. Oliveira DM, Melo FG, Balogun SO, et al. (2015). Antibacterial mode of action of the hydroethanolic extract of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. involves bacterial membrane perturbations — in vitro. J Ethnopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26102550/
9. Casiglia S, Bruno M, Senatore F. (2014). Activity against microorganisms affecting cellulosic objects of the volatile constituents of Leonotis nepetaefolia from Nicaragua — in vitro. Nat Prod Commun. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25532300/
10. de Oliveira DP, Almeida L, Marques MJ, et al. (2021). Exploring the bioactivity potential of Leonotis nepetifolia: phytochemical composition, antimicrobial and antileishmanial activities of extracts from different anatomical parts — in vitro. Nat Prod Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31691582/
11. Nagaraja SK, Nayaka S, Kumar RS. (2023). Phytochemical analysis, GC-MS profiling, and in vitro evaluation of biological applications of different solvent extracts of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. flower buds — in vitro. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36342622/
12. Adolpho LO, Marques MJ, Dalcol II, et al. (2024). Chemical profile and antimicrobial activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. essential oils — in vitro. Nat Prod Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37583125/
13. Abubacker MN, Ramanathan R. (2003). Efficacy of Euphorbia splendens and Leonotis nepetaefolia on aflatoxin-producing fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus — in vitro. Indian J Exp Biol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15320507/
14. David JP, Meira M, David JM, et al. (2007). Radical scavenging, antioxidant and cytotoxic activity of Brazilian Caatinga plants — in vitro DPPH/brine-shrimp. Fitoterapia. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17331673/
15. Kowalczyk T, Merecz-Sadowska A, Rijo P, et al. (2021). Preliminary phytochemical analysis and evaluation of the biological activity of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br transformed roots extracts obtained through Rhizobium rhizogenes-mediated transformation — in vitro. Cells. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34070057/
16. Nagaraja SK, Kumar RS, Chakraborty B, et al. (2022). Leonotis nepetifolia flower bud extract mediated green synthesis of silver nanoparticles, their characterization, and in vitro evaluation of biological applications — in vitro. Materials (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36556796/
17. Arrieta-Báez D, Cruz-Carrillo M, Gómez-Cansino R, et al. (2022). Antidepressant-like effects of a methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model). Nat Prod Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35357257/
18. Ayanwuyi LO, Yaro AH, Adama TZ. (2016). Preliminary studies on the behavioural effects of the methanol extract of Leonotis nepetifolia Linn stem in mice — in vivo behavioural (animal model). Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28852715/
19. de Oliveira AP, Guimarães AL, Pacheco AGM, et al. (2019). Influence of light intensity, fertilizing and season on the cirsiliol content, a chemical marker of Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae) — cultivation/chemical marker. PeerJ. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30671296/
20. Oliveira AP, Silva JC, Silva RM, et al. (2019). β-Cyclodextrin complex improves the bioavailability and antitumor potential of cirsiliol, a flavone isolated from Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae) — in vitro plus in vivo murine sarcoma model. Heliyon. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31720439/
21. Merecz-Sadowska A, Sitarek P, Kowalczyk T, et al. (2022). In vitro and in silico studies on Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. root extract against cancer cells — in vitro + in silico. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35249478/
22. Nguyen TK, Pham HD, Le TVT, et al. (2023). Nepetifoliol — a new glutinane-triterpenoid from Leonotis nepetifolia — phytochemistry, in vitro α-glucosidase inhibition. Nat Prod Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34365866/
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