Astragaloside IV

Astragaloside IV at a Glance

Astragaloside IV is the signature cycloartane triterpenoid saponin of astragalus (huang qi) and the compound most credited with the root’s cardio- and kidney-protective reputation in Chinese medicine.

It has an enormous preclinical footprint — one of the largest of any single plant saponin — spanning cardiac, renal, neurological and metabolic models.

The constraint on all of it is bioavailability: astragaloside IV is a large, poorly absorbed saponin, which is the recurring gap between its laboratory record and its clinical standing.

Astragaloside IV Is a Prodrug

Two numbers govern how the rest of the evidence reads. The first is 2.2% — the absolute oral bioavailability of astragaloside IV in rats ^{1Reference 1Gu Y et al. · 2004In vitroTransport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitroView study →}. The second is what happens to the other 98%.

Incubated anaerobically with rat intestinal bacteria, astragaloside IV is taken apart by stepwise deglycosylation: it loses its sugars through the monoglycosides brachyoside B and cyclogaleginoside B to the free aglycone cycloastragenol, which is then epimerised and dehydrogenated to two further metabolites. Removing the glucose at C-6 is the rate-limiting step ^{14Reference 14Zhou RN et al. · 2012In vitroPharmacokinetic evidence on the contribution of intestinal bacterial conversion to beneficial effects of astragaloside IV, a marker compound of astragali radix, in traditional oral use of the herb — rat in vivo and in vitroView study →}. Dosed orally to rats, cycloastragenol and its epimer turn out to be the main circulating species after astragaloside IV itself — plasma AUCs of about 89 and 179 nM·h against 452 nM·h for the parent ^{14Reference 14Zhou RN et al. · 2012In vitroPharmacokinetic evidence on the contribution of intestinal bacterial conversion to beneficial effects of astragaloside IV, a marker compound of astragali radix, in traditional oral use of the herb — rat in vivo and in vitroView study →}.

So the picture is closer to the ginsenoside one than the saponin’s own literature suggests. The molecule that has been studied in several hundred cell and rodent papers is largely not the molecule that circulates after someone drinks a huang qi decoction; a substantial share of the systemic exposure is the aglycone cycloastragenol, which has its own pharmacology and its own commercial history as the telomerase activator TA-65. Two consequences follow:

• Micromolar in-vitro potencies do not describe an oral dose. Much of the preclinical work also injects astragaloside IV, which sidesteps the question entirely.
• Attribution is genuinely open. Where an effect is seen after oral dosing of the herb or of the saponin, it may belong to astragaloside IV, to cycloastragenol, or to both — and almost none of the literature is designed to tell them apart.

None of this makes the preclinical work wrong. It makes it evidence about a molecule that has to be delivered past the gut wall to act, and that has never been delivered past it in a human trial.

What It's Used For

Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) is the marker cycloartane saponin of astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus, huang qi), and the single molecule most often credited with the root’s traditional cardiac, kidney and “tonic” reputation. The literature on it is large but almost entirely preclinical — hundreds of cell and rodent studies spanning cardioprotection, anti-fibrosis, diabetic nephropathy, neuroprotection and immunomodulation, aggregated in several reviews and preclinical meta-analyses ^{3,4,5Reference 3Li L et al. · 2017ReviewResearch review on the pharmacological effects of astragaloside IV — reviewView study →Reference 4Liang Y et al. · 2023ReviewPharmacological Effects of Astragaloside IV: A Review — reviewView study →Reference 5Zhuang Z et al. · 2019Meta-analysisAstragaloside IV Exerts Cardioprotection in Animal Models of Viral Myocarditis: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →}.

The decisive caveat sits underneath all of it: the isolated molecule is a large, poorly permeable saponin with oral bioavailability of only ~2–3% in rats ^{1Reference 1Gu Y et al. · 2004In vitroTransport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitroView study →}, which is why the huge in-vitro/in-vivo signal has never been shown to reproduce in a human trial of the isolated compound. Every application below rests on animal or cell work; any human evidence for astragalus is whole-extract, not molecule-level, and does not transfer to AS-IV.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

01CardioprotectionShaky38%Rodent models + preclinical meta-analyses ^{5,6,7Reference 5Zhuang Z et al. · 2019Meta-analysisAstragaloside IV Exerts Cardioprotection in Animal Models of Viral Myocarditis: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →Reference 6Yang C et al. · 2023ReviewReview on the protective mechanism of astragaloside IV against cardiovascular diseases — reviewView study →Reference 7Zhang Z et al. · 2023Meta-analysisEffect of Astragaloside IV on improving cardiac function in rats with heart failure: a preclinical systematic review and meta-analysis — meta-analysis of rat modelsView study →}

02Diabetic nephropathyShaky32%STZ/db-db rodent models + preclinical meta-analysis ^{8,9Reference 8Wang H et al. · 2020Meta-analysisProtective Effect and Possible Mechanisms of Astragaloside IV in Animal Models of Diabetic Nephropathy: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →Reference 9Chen J et al. · 2014AnimalAstragaloside IV ameliorates diabetic nephropathy involving protection of podocytes in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats — rat in vivoView study →}

03Anti-fibroticShaky28%Bleomycin/organ-fibrosis models, TGF-β/Smad ^{10,4Reference 10Qian W et al. · 2018In vitroAstragaloside IV modulates TGF-β1-dependent epithelial-mesenchymal transition in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis — mouse in vivo / in vitroView study →Reference 4Liang Y et al. · 2023ReviewPharmacological Effects of Astragaloside IV: A Review — reviewView study →}

04NeuroprotectionShaky22%Rat cerebral ischemia–reperfusion models ^{11,12Reference 11Qu YZ et al. · 2009AnimalAstragaloside IV attenuates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier in rats — rat in vivoView study →Reference 12Xu Z et al. · 2020In vitroAstragaloside IV Alleviates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Activating the Janus Kinase 2 and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 Signaling Pathway — rat in vivo / in vitroView study →}

Mechanisms

Pharmacokinetics

In the definitive rat study, the absolute oral bioavailability of astragaloside IV was ~2.2%: absorption from an aqueous solution was low, permeability across Caco-2 monolayers was very poor, and most of an oral dose was not absorbed ^{1Reference 1Gu Y et al. · 2004In vitroTransport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitroView study →}. Notably, that same work found uptake was not affected by P-glycoprotein inhibitors and was not increased by bile-duct ligation — so the bottleneck is the molecule’s intrinsically poor passive permeability as a large, polar cycloartane saponin, not primarily active efflux ^{1Reference 1Gu Y et al. · 2004In vitroTransport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitroView study →}. (Other reports do describe AS-IV as a P-gp substrate, so efflux may contribute; the primary transport study points to permeability as the dominant limit.) Preclinical pharmacokinetic and tissue-distribution work in rats and dogs confirms wide but low-level distribution consistent with this poor absorption ^{2Reference 2Zhang WD et al. · 2006AnimalPreclinical pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of a natural cardioprotective agent astragaloside IV in rats and dogs — animal pharmacokineticsView study →}. What is absorbed is cleared and excreted quickly; what is not absorbed is deglycosylated by gut bacteria to cycloastragenol and its derivatives ^{14Reference 14Zhou RN et al. · 2012In vitroPharmacokinetic evidence on the contribution of intestinal bacterial conversion to beneficial effects of astragaloside IV, a marker compound of astragali radix, in traditional oral use of the herb — rat in vivo and in vitroView study →}. The practical consequence: micromolar in-vitro potencies and injected rodent doses do not correspond to concentrations an oral human dose could reach, which is why isolate-level human efficacy remains unestablished.

Clinical Trials

There are essentially no registered trials of the isolated compound — human data for astragalus are at the whole-extract level and do not establish anything about isolated AS-IV. All therapeutic evidence for the molecule is preclinical ^{3,4Reference 3Li L et al. · 2017ReviewResearch review on the pharmacological effects of astragaloside IV — reviewView study →Reference 4Liang Y et al. · 2023ReviewPharmacological Effects of Astragaloside IV: A Review — reviewView study →}.

Last checked: September 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

The split here is unusually clean, and unusually unhelpful. All of the molecule-level evidence is isolate; all of the human evidence is plant. Hundreds of cell and rodent studies use purified astragaloside IV, frequently by injection ^{5,7,8,9,10,11,12Reference 5Zhuang Z et al. · 2019Meta-analysisAstragaloside IV Exerts Cardioprotection in Animal Models of Viral Myocarditis: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →Reference 7Zhang Z et al. · 2023Meta-analysisEffect of Astragaloside IV on improving cardiac function in rats with heart failure: a preclinical systematic review and meta-analysis — meta-analysis of rat modelsView study →Reference 8Wang H et al. · 2020Meta-analysisProtective Effect and Possible Mechanisms of Astragaloside IV in Animal Models of Diabetic Nephropathy: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →Reference 9Chen J et al. · 2014AnimalAstragaloside IV ameliorates diabetic nephropathy involving protection of podocytes in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats — rat in vivoView study →Reference 10Qian W et al. · 2018In vitroAstragaloside IV modulates TGF-β1-dependent epithelial-mesenchymal transition in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis — mouse in vivo / in vitroView study →Reference 11Qu YZ et al. · 2009AnimalAstragaloside IV attenuates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier in rats — rat in vivoView study →Reference 12Xu Z et al. · 2020In vitroAstragaloside IV Alleviates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Activating the Janus Kinase 2 and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 Signaling Pathway — rat in vivo / in vitroView study →}; the human literature belongs to astragalus decoctions and standardised extracts, in which astragaloside IV is one saponin among astragalosides I, II, III and VI, isoastragalosides, agroastragalosides and a large flavonoid fraction ^{3,4Reference 3Li L et al. · 2017ReviewResearch review on the pharmacological effects of astragaloside IV — reviewView study →Reference 4Liang Y et al. · 2023ReviewPharmacological Effects of Astragaloside IV: A Review — reviewView study →}. There is no trial of the isolated compound to bridge them.

Worse, the bridge that does exist runs through a third molecule. Because oral astragaloside IV is largely converted to cycloastragenol before it circulates ^{14Reference 14Zhou RN et al. · 2012In vitroPharmacokinetic evidence on the contribution of intestinal bacterial conversion to beneficial effects of astragaloside IV, a marker compound of astragali radix, in traditional oral use of the herb — rat in vivo and in vitroView study →}, a result obtained by injecting the saponin into a rat is not straightforwardly evidence about drinking the herb — and a result obtained by feeding the herb is not straightforwardly evidence about the saponin. The literature is large enough to look conclusive and structured in a way that makes it very hard to attribute.

One quantitative point makes the mismatch concrete. Rodent efficacy studies commonly dose 10–40 mg/kg ^{5,9,11Reference 5Zhuang Z et al. · 2019Meta-analysisAstragaloside IV Exerts Cardioprotection in Animal Models of Viral Myocarditis: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →Reference 9Chen J et al. · 2014AnimalAstragaloside IV ameliorates diabetic nephropathy involving protection of podocytes in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats — rat in vivoView study →Reference 11Qu YZ et al. · 2009AnimalAstragaloside IV attenuates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier in rats — rat in vivoView study →}. Dry astragalus root carries about 0.58 mg of astragaloside IV per gram ^{15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →}. A rodent-equivalent oral dose in a person, before any correction for the 2.2% absorption, would require quantities of root far beyond any traditional preparation — which is the honest reason the preclinical file has not become a clinical one.

Its Role in Plants

Astragaloside IV is a cycloartane triterpene — built on the 9,19-cyclolanostane skeleton, with a strained cyclopropane ring fused across the B-ring that most plant triterpenes do not have ^{19Reference 19Kitagawa I et al. · 1983Saponin and sapogenolView study →}. The biosynthesis was unresolved until 2024, when a chromosome-level genome of Astragalus membranaceus revealed a triterpenoid biosynthetic gene cluster and let the full pathway be assembled: a sequence of selective hydroxylations, an epoxidation and two glycosylations, carried out by three cytochrome P450s, one 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase and two glycosyltransferases ^{17Reference 17Xu B et al. · 2024Total biosynthesis of the medicinal triterpenoid saponin astragalosidesView study →}.

Where the plant makes it and where it keeps it are not the same place. Transcript levels for the mevalonate-pathway genes upstream of the saponins are highest in stem and leaf and lowest in the root, while the astragalosides themselves accumulate overwhelmingly in the root ^{15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →} — a synthesise-here, store-there pattern typical of a defensive metabolite banked in a perennial storage organ. Within the root it is concentrated further still: total astragalosides are about eightfold more concentrated in the periderm than in the cortex, and twenty-eightfold more than in the xylem, and unpeeled roots carry 1.5–2.3 times more than peeled ones ^{16Reference 16Kwon HJ et al. · 2013Astragaloside content in the periderm, cortex, and xylem of Astragalus membranaceus rootView study →}. The skin is where the chemistry is, which is a sourcing fact as much as a botanical one.

Prevalence in Nature

Astragaloside IV occurs in Astragalus (Fabaceae) and is not a dietary molecule. Within the genus it is the pharmacopoeial marker for huang qi, but it is not the most abundant astragaloside even in its own plant — in root, astragaloside II runs about 2.09 mg/g against astragaloside IV’s 0.58 mg/g ^{15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →}. The two nominal source species differ measurably: A. membranaceus carries significantly more astragalosides I–IV than A. mongholicus, one of 53 markers separating them ^{20Reference 20Wang Y et al. · 2019Chemical discrimination of Astragalus mongholicus and Astragalus membranaceus based on metabolomics using a UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS approachView study →}.

Concentration by organ, in A. membranaceus:

Major Natural Sources

Source	Part	Astragaloside IV
Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus)	Root	0.58 mg/g dry wt — about 0.06% 15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →
Astragalus	Flower	0.27 mg/g dry wt 15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →
Astragalus	Stem	0.23 mg/g dry wt 15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →
Astragalus	Leaf	0.04 mg/g dry wt 15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →
Astragalus, root periderm vs xylem	Root tissues	Total astragalosides ~8× the cortex and ~28× the xylem 16Reference 16Kwon HJ et al. · 2013Astragaloside content in the periderm, cortex, and xylem of Astragalus membranaceus rootView study →
Astragalus mongholicus	Root	Present, significantly lower than A. membranaceus 20Reference 20Wang Y et al. · 2019Chemical discrimination of Astragalus mongholicus and Astragalus membranaceus based on metabolomics using a UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS approachView study →

The scarcity is the point, and it is why the 2024 pathway work frames heterologous production in tobacco as a solution to a sourcing problem rather than a curiosity ^{17Reference 17Xu B et al. · 2024Total biosynthesis of the medicinal triterpenoid saponin astragalosidesView study →}.

Discovery & Synthesis

Astragaloside IV was isolated and named in 1983 by Isao Kitagawa, Huikang Wang, Masayuki Saito, Akira Takagi and Masayuki Yoshikawa at Osaka University, in part XXXV of a long Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin series on saponins — the paper that described astragalosides I, II and IV, acetylastragaloside I and the isoastragalosides together ^{18Reference 18Kitagawa I et al. · 1983Saponin and sapogenolView study →}. The immediately preceding paper in the same series had established the aglycone, cycloastragenol, and made an observation that still matters: the aglycone recovered by acid hydrolysis, astragenol, is an artefact — the strained 9,19-cyclopropane ring opens under the conditions used to remove the sugars ^{19Reference 19Kitagawa I et al. · 1983Saponin and sapogenolView study →}. Astragaloside IV is a molecule whose aglycone changes when you try to isolate it carelessly.

There is no total chemical synthesis in use. Commercial astragaloside IV is extracted from astragalus root, which is expensive given that the root is only about 0.06% astragaloside IV ^{15Reference 15Kim YB et al. · 2014Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.)View study →}. The 2024 elucidation of the pathway opened the alternative route: reconstituting the cluster’s three P450s, dioxygenase and two glycosyltransferases in Nicotiana benthamiana produced astragaloside IV heterologously, and the authors present this explicitly as an answer to the sourcing problem ^{17Reference 17Xu B et al. · 2024Total biosynthesis of the medicinal triterpenoid saponin astragalosidesView study →}. Semi-synthesis in the other direction is already commercial — hydrolysing astragalosides to cycloastragenol is how the telomerase-activator supplements are made.

Patents: not yet researched (future patent-loop pass).

Toxicity & Safety

Astragaloside IV has a reassuring preclinical safety profile: reviews report no significant toxicity in standard animal testing, and repeated oral dosing in rodents produced no clear liver or kidney injury ^{3,4Reference 3Li L et al. · 2017ReviewResearch review on the pharmacological effects of astragaloside IV — reviewView study →Reference 4Liang Y et al. · 2023ReviewPharmacological Effects of Astragaloside IV: A Review — reviewView study →}. Because oral absorption is only ~2–3% ^{1Reference 1Gu Y et al. · 2004In vitroTransport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitroView study →}, systemic exposure — and therefore systemic toxicity risk — is intrinsically limited when it is taken by mouth. The most concrete caution comes from reproductive toxicology rather than general toxicity: in an embryo-fetal development study in rats and rabbits, astragaloside IV was studied for developmental effects and, as reviewed, the broader reproductive-toxicity literature shows an inhibitory effect on female fertility and, at the higher maternal dose, delays in neonatal developmental milestones ^{13Reference 13Jiangbo Z et al. · 2009AnimalEffect of astragaloside IV on the embryo-fetal development of Sprague-Dawley rats and New Zealand White rabbits — animal reproductive toxicityView study →}. Documented human drug-interaction data for the isolated molecule are lacking; any interaction concern is theoretical and mostly relevant to the whole herb.

Dosage

Nothing here is a recommendation. There is no established human dose for the isolated compound, and the poor oral bioavailability (~2–3%) ^{1Reference 1Gu Y et al. · 2004In vitroTransport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitroView study →} means research doses do not translate to an oral human regimen. For research context only: rodent studies of the isolated molecule commonly use roughly 10–40 mg/kg by injection or oral gavage in cardio-, reno- and neuroprotection models ^{11,5,9Reference 11Qu YZ et al. · 2009AnimalAstragaloside IV attenuates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier in rats — rat in vivoView study →Reference 5Zhuang Z et al. · 2019Meta-analysisAstragaloside IV Exerts Cardioprotection in Animal Models of Viral Myocarditis: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal modelsView study →Reference 9Chen J et al. · 2014AnimalAstragaloside IV ameliorates diabetic nephropathy involving protection of podocytes in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats — rat in vivoView study →}, and long-term rat dosing around 10 mg/kg/day for several weeks did not produce clear organ toxicity ^{3Reference 3Li L et al. · 2017ReviewResearch review on the pharmacological effects of astragaloside IV — reviewView study →}. These are doses studied in research and are not a personal recommendation.

References

1. Gu Y, Wang G, Pan G, Fawcett JP, A J, Sun J (2004). Transport and bioavailability studies of astragaloside IV, an active ingredient in Radix Astragali — rat/in vivo, Caco-2 in vitro. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15569275/
2. Zhang WD, Zhang C, Liu RH, et al. (2006). Preclinical pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of a natural cardioprotective agent astragaloside IV in rats and dogs — animal pharmacokinetics. Life Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16564551/
3. Li L, Hou X, Xu R, Liu C, Tu M (2017). Research review on the pharmacological effects of astragaloside IV — review. Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27567103/
4. Liang Y, Chen B, Liang D, et al. (2023). Pharmacological Effects of Astragaloside IV: A Review — review. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37630371/
5. Zhuang Z, Wang ZH, Deng LH, et al. (2019). Astragaloside IV Exerts Cardioprotection in Animal Models of Viral Myocarditis: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal models. Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31849654/
6. Yang C, et al. (2023). Review on the protective mechanism of astragaloside IV against cardiovascular diseases — review. Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37251311/
7. Zhang Z, Zhang M, et al. (2023). Effect of Astragaloside IV on improving cardiac function in rats with heart failure: a preclinical systematic review and meta-analysis — meta-analysis of rat models. Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37854719/
8. Wang H, et al. (2020). Protective Effect and Possible Mechanisms of Astragaloside IV in Animal Models of Diabetic Nephropathy: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis — meta-analysis of animal models. Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32695006/
9. Chen J, Gui D, Chen Y, et al. (2014). Astragaloside IV ameliorates diabetic nephropathy involving protection of podocytes in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats — rat in vivo. European Journal of Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24809932/
10. Qian W, Cai X, Qian Q, Zhang W, Wang D (2018). Astragaloside IV modulates TGF-β1-dependent epithelial-mesenchymal transition in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis — mouse in vivo / in vitro. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29971947/
11. Qu YZ, Li M, Zhao YL, et al. (2009). Astragaloside IV attenuates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier in rats — rat in vivo. European Journal of Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19374856/
12. Xu Z, et al. (2020). Astragaloside IV Alleviates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Activating the Janus Kinase 2 and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 Signaling Pathway — rat in vivo / in vitro. Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31825924/
13. Jiangbo Z, Xuying W, Yuping Z, Xili M, Yiwen Z, Tianbao Z (2009). Effect of astragaloside IV on the embryo-fetal development of Sprague-Dawley rats and New Zealand White rabbits — animal reproductive toxicity. Journal of Applied Toxicology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19367606/
14. Zhou RN, Song YL, Ruan JQ, et al. (2012). Pharmacokinetic evidence on the contribution of intestinal bacterial conversion to beneficial effects of astragaloside IV, a marker compound of astragali radix, in traditional oral use of the herb — rat in vivo and in vitro. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22673033/
15. Kim YB, Thwe AA, Li X, et al. (2014). Accumulation of astragalosides and related gene expression in different organs of Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var mongholicus (Bge.). Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25068786/
16. Kwon HJ, Hwang J, Lee SK, et al. (2013). Astragaloside content in the periderm, cortex, and xylem of Astragalus membranaceus root. Journal of Natural Medicines. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23381847/
17. Xu B, Huang JP, Peng G, et al. (2024). Total biosynthesis of the medicinal triterpenoid saponin astragalosides. Nature Plants. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39433972/
18. Kitagawa I, Wang H, Saito M, et al. (1983). Saponin and sapogenol. XXXV. Chemical constituents of astragali radix, the root of Astragalus membranaceus Bunge. (2). Astragalosides I, II and IV, acetylastragaloside I and isoastragalosides I and II. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.31.698
19. Kitagawa I, Wang H, Takagi A, et al. (1983). Saponin and sapogenol. XXXIV. Chemical constituents of astragali radix, the root of Astragalus membranaceus Bunge. (1). Cycloastragenol, the 9,19-cyclolanostane-type aglycone of astragalosides, and the artifact aglycone astragenol. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.31.689
20. Wang Y, Liu L, Ma Y, et al. (2019). Chemical discrimination of Astragalus mongholicus and Astragalus membranaceus based on metabolomics using a UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS approach. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31717584/

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