Paeonol

Paeonol at a Glance

Paeonol is a small phenolic acetophenone (2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxyacetophenone) — the volatile, aromatic principle of moutan cortex (Mu Dan Pi), the root bark of tree peony (Paeonia suffruticosa), and a constituent of red and white peony root (Paeonia lactiflora). It is the characteristic marker and one of the actives of moutan cortex ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}.

Chemically it is quite distinct from the peony-root monoterpene glycosides paeoniflorin and albiflorin: paeonol is the volatile phenol, they are the water-soluble glycosides, and the two families do different things.

Its best-developed signal is cardiovascular — anti-atherosclerotic and endothelial-protective in animal models — layered on a broad anti-inflammatory action that runs largely through NF-κB / TLR4 suppression; the analgesic, anti-allergic and neuroprotective effects follow from that same anti-inflammatory core. The load-bearing caveat is that almost all of this is animal or in-vitro work on the isolated molecule, and paeonol’s poor oral bioavailability is the central obstacle to translating it into human use ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}.

Paeonol vs. the Peony Glycosides

Peony chemistry has two distinct active families, and paeonol belongs to the smaller, more volatile one. The pharmacopoeial markers of white peony root are the monoterpene glycosides paeoniflorin and its isomer albiflorin — water-soluble, non-volatile molecules that drive the peony root’s smooth-muscle-relaxant and antispasmodic reputation. Paeonol is chemically unrelated: a small phenolic acetophenone (2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxyacetophenone), volatile and aromatic, and it is not the same molecule as the glycosides despite the shared “paeon-” root of the names ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}.

It is also distributed differently across the peony forms. Paeonol is comparatively minor in white peony root and concentrated in the root bark of tree peony (moutan cortex, Paeonia suffruticosa; Mu Dan Pi) and in red peony root, so its presence and level help distinguish the peony chemotypes ^{1,25Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 25Fang W et al. · 2025Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics AnalysisView study →}. Functionally, paeonol carries the phenolic profile — anti-inflammatory and, above all, cardiovascular/anti-atherosclerotic activity — rather than the glycosides’ neuromuscular actions ^{2,3Reference 2Vellasamy S et al. · 2021ReviewBiological Activities of Paeonol in Cardiovascular Diseases: A ReviewView study →Reference 3Yang C et al. · 2023ReviewReview of the Protective Mechanism of Paeonol on Cardiovascular DiseaseView study →}. On this site the tree-peony-bark and peony-root story lives on the peony monograph; this is the molecule.

What It's Used For

Paeonol’s preclinical record is substantial and internally coherent — a cardiovascular headline sitting on an anti-inflammatory base — but the compound-page discipline dominates: nearly all of it is rodent or cell-line work on purified paeonol, and the isolate’s poor oral bioavailability makes the effective doses hard to reach from the herb ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Support is an experimental score — weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro) and volume. A beta, not a validated metric. Every row here is isolate rodent/cell work (no isolate human efficacy trial exists), so scores stay modest by design; read the per-row basis.

01Cardiovascular / anti-atheroscleroticPromising58%Rabbit & mouse isolate models (lesions, endothelium, VSMC senescence) + mechanism reviews ^{2,6,7,8Reference 2Vellasamy S et al. · 2021ReviewBiological Activities of Paeonol in Cardiovascular Diseases: A ReviewView study →Reference 6Li H et al. · 2009Paeonol attenuates high-fat-diet-induced atherosclerosis in rabbits by anti-inflammatory activityView study →Reference 7Zhou M et al. · 2024Paeonol Attenuates Atherosclerosis by Inhibiting Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Senescence via SIRT1/P53/TRF2 Signaling PathwayView study →Reference 8Choy KW et al. · 2017AnimalChronic treatment with paeonol improves endothelial function in mice through inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated oxidative stressView study →}

02Anti-inflammatoryPromising54%Broad isolate NF-κB / TLR4 suppression across pain, colitis, lung-injury models ^{9,10,11,12Reference 9Chou TC · 2003Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of paeonol in carrageenan-evoked thermal hyperalgesiaView study →Reference 10Qiu C et al. · 2021Paeonol ameliorates CFA-induced inflammatory pain by inhibiting HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB p65 pathwayView study →Reference 11Cheng S et al. · 2024Paeonol alleviates ulcerative colitis by modulating PPAR-γ and nuclear factor-κB activationView study →Reference 12Wang F et al. · 2019Paeonol ameliorates lipopolysaccharides-induced acute lung injury by regulating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathwayView study →}

03AnalgesicShaky42%Carrageenan hyperalgesia (isolate) + a combination migraine model ^{9,13Reference 9Chou TC · 2003Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of paeonol in carrageenan-evoked thermal hyperalgesiaView study →Reference 13Zhang Y et al. · 2024AnimalPaeonol and glycyrrhizic acid in combination ameliorate the recurrent nitroglycerin-induced migraine-like phenotype in rats by regulating the GABBR2/TRPM8/PRKACA/TRPV1 pathwayView study →}

04Anti-allergic / mast-cellShaky38%Rodent/mast-cell anaphylaxis, urticaria, atopic models ^{18,19,20Reference 18Kim SH et al. · 2004Paeonol inhibits anaphylactic reaction by regulating histamine and TNF-alphaView study →Reference 19Ding Y et al. · 2023Paeonol attenuates Substance P-induced urticaria by inhibiting Src kinase phosphorylation in mast cellsView study →Reference 20Lee B et al. · 2008Antiallergic effect of the root of Paeonia lactiflora and its constituents paeoniflorin and paeonolView study →}

05NeuroprotectiveShaky36%Rodent/cell isolate: epilepsy, diabetic neuropathy, Parkinson’s model ^{14,15,16Reference 14Ramazi S et al. · 2022Paeonol exerts neuroprotective and anticonvulsant effects in intrahippocampal kainate model of temporal lobe epilepsyView study →Reference 15Adki KM et al. · 2021AnimalNeuroprotective effect of paeonol in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in ratsView study →Reference 16Wang H et al. · 2015Wang H, et al. (2015). [Neuroprotective effects of paeonol in a cell model of Parkinson disease]. Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25851972/View study →}

06Antidiabetic / metabolicShaky30%Single rodent isolate model (Akt) ^{17Reference 17Xu F et al. · 2019Paeonol Ameliorates Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Experimental Diabetes by Activating AktView study →}

07AntitumorShaky26%In-vitro cell lines (Wnt/β-catenin) + immuno-oncology reviews ^{21,27Reference 21Liu LH et al. · 2020Paeonol exerts anti-tumor activity against colorectal cancer cells by inducing G0/G1 phase arrest and cell apoptosis via inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathwayView study →Reference 27Barnes P et al. · 2025ReviewInsight into the immunomodulatory and chemotherapeutic mechanisms of paeonol (Review)View study →}

Mechanisms

The load-bearing point is convergence: NF-κB / TLR4 suppression sits upstream of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, colitis, lung-injury and mast-cell effects, while the SIRT1 and ER-stress routes carry the distinct cardiovascular story. One anti-inflammatory theme, several downstream applications.

Pharmacokinetics

Paeonol is a small, lipophilic, volatile phenol with poor water solubility, and this — not toxicity — is the defining fact of its pharmacokinetics. Oral bioavailability is low and systemic exposure short-lived: it is rapidly absorbed but also rapidly metabolised and eliminated, and it is volatile at room temperature ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}. These liabilities are exactly why a large share of the paeonol literature is devoted to delivery systems — nanoemulsions, niosomes, liposomes, micro- and nanoparticles, ethosomes and topical gels engineered to raise its oral bioavailability and stability ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}. The practical read for a compound page: in-vitro potency overstates what a swallowed dose achieves, because free paeonol reaches plasma poorly and briefly ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}. Robust human PK — Cmax, half-life, absolute bioavailability of the isolate — is not well established; most parameters come from rodents ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}.

Clinical Trials

Human evidence is thin and indirect: there are no efficacy trials of isolated oral paeonol. The closest randomised data are for combination products — a fixed-dose apocynin–paeonol tablet (APPA) tested in symptomatic knee osteoarthritis ^{22Reference 22Bihlet AR et al. · 2024RCTThe efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of apocynin and paeonol, APPA, in symptomatic knee OA: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trialView study →} and a paeonol-containing toothpaste for dentine hypersensitivity ^{23Reference 23Li J et al. · 2023RCTEfficacy of a toothpaste containing paeonol, potassium nitrate, and strontium chloride on dentine hypersensitivity: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in Chinese adultsView study →}.

Last checked: July 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

Paeonol is unusually isolate-heavy on the mechanism side and thin on the plant/human side. The anti-atherosclerotic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, mast-cell, neuroprotective and antitumor findings above almost all test purified paeonol in rodents or cell lines ^{6,8,10,14,21Reference 6Li H et al. · 2009Paeonol attenuates high-fat-diet-induced atherosclerosis in rabbits by anti-inflammatory activityView study →Reference 8Choy KW et al. · 2017AnimalChronic treatment with paeonol improves endothelial function in mice through inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated oxidative stressView study →Reference 10Qiu C et al. · 2021Paeonol ameliorates CFA-induced inflammatory pain by inhibiting HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB p65 pathwayView study →Reference 14Ramazi S et al. · 2022Paeonol exerts neuroprotective and anticonvulsant effects in intrahippocampal kainate model of temporal lobe epilepsyView study →Reference 21Liu LH et al. · 2020Paeonol exerts anti-tumor activity against colorectal cancer cells by inducing G0/G1 phase arrest and cell apoptosis via inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathwayView study →} — a genuine strength for attributing effects to the molecule, but at doses and exposures that its poor oral bioavailability makes hard to reach from the herb ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}. The whole-plant thread is comparatively small: an antiallergic study of Paeonia lactiflora root credited both paeoniflorin and paeonol ^{20Reference 20Lee B et al. · 2008Antiallergic effect of the root of Paeonia lactiflora and its constituents paeoniflorin and paeonolView study →}, and the only human data are combination formulations (APPA, a paeonol toothpaste), not the isolate or a simple extract ^{22,23Reference 22Bihlet AR et al. · 2024RCTThe efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of apocynin and paeonol, APPA, in symptomatic knee OA: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trialView study →Reference 23Li J et al. · 2023RCTEfficacy of a toothpaste containing paeonol, potassium nitrate, and strontium chloride on dentine hypersensitivity: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in Chinese adultsView study →}. Because paeonol is only a minor constituent of white peony root and is concentrated instead in tree-peony bark, “peony” studies do not automatically bear on paeonol unless the preparation is a paeonol-rich one ^{1,25Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 25Fang W et al. · 2025Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics AnalysisView study →}.

Prevalence in Nature

Paeonol’s headline occurrence is the root bark of tree peony (moutan cortex, Paeonia suffruticosa; Mu Dan Pi), where it is the characteristic volatile phenolic and one of the chemical markers used to fingerprint and grade the herb by UPLC ^{25Reference 25Fang W et al. · 2025Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics AnalysisView study →}. It is also present in red peony and, as a minor constituent, in white peony root (Paeonia lactiflora) ^{1,25Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 25Fang W et al. · 2025Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics AnalysisView study →}; the review literature reports it from Dioscorea japonica and other genera ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}, and it is commonly listed among the constituents of Cynanchum paniculatum (Xu Chang Qing).

Concentrations vary widely with species, plant part and the white-versus-red / processing distinction, and paeonol’s content is precisely what separates the tree-peony-bark and red-peony chemotypes from paeonol-poor white peony root ^{1,25Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 25Fang W et al. · 2025Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics AnalysisView study →}. A firm cross-source quantitative range (e.g. % dry weight per source) is not well pinned down here — that hole is logged in the compound’s gaps tracker to chase on a later pass ^{25Reference 25Fang W et al. · 2025Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics AnalysisView study →}.

Discovery & Synthesis

Paeonol has long been known as the fragrant principle of moutan cortex (Mu Dan Pi), the root bark of tree peony, and it is a structurally simple acetophenone — 2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxyacetophenone — readily obtained either by extraction / steam distillation of the bark or by straightforward chemical synthesis ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}. Because the molecule is small and cheap to make, and because the reviewed literature spans decades of synthetic-derivative chemistry, commercially available paeonol is often synthetic rather than plant-extracted, and much research uses purified reference-grade material ^{1,26Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 26Wang J et al. · 2020ReviewPaeonol Derivatives and Pharmacological Activities: A Review of Recent ProgressView study →}. Extensive medicinal-chemistry work has produced methoxy, piperazine, aminothiazole, hybrid and other paeonol derivatives aimed at improving its stability, solubility and activity ^{1,26Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 26Wang J et al. · 2020ReviewPaeonol Derivatives and Pharmacological Activities: A Review of Recent ProgressView study →}.

Patents: not yet researched.

Toxicity & Safety

Paeonol carries a low flag. In animal studies it has low acute oral toxicity and a long history of dietary and traditional exposure as the aromatic of moutan cortex; the practical limitation on the molecule is not toxicity but its poor oral bioavailability and volatility, which cap systemic exposure ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}. Human safety data for the isolate are limited to the combination-product trials, where the apocynin–paeonol tablet and the paeonol toothpaste were reported as well tolerated ^{22,23Reference 22Bihlet AR et al. · 2024RCTThe efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of apocynin and paeonol, APPA, in symptomatic knee OA: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trialView study →Reference 23Li J et al. · 2023RCTEfficacy of a toothpaste containing paeonol, potassium nitrate, and strontium chloride on dentine hypersensitivity: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in Chinese adultsView study →}.

As with any vascular-active, platelet-modulating phenol, a theoretical additive effect with antiplatelet or anticoagulant agents cannot be excluded from the mechanism data, and paeonol has not been characterised for reproductive/developmental toxicity as an isolate ^{2,3Reference 2Vellasamy S et al. · 2021ReviewBiological Activities of Paeonol in Cardiovascular Diseases: A ReviewView study →Reference 3Yang C et al. · 2023ReviewReview of the Protective Mechanism of Paeonol on Cardiovascular DiseaseView study →}. Never read safety from silence: comprehensive isolate genotoxicity, repeat-dose and drug-interaction packages are not established here. Pregnancy and lactation decisions belong to the herb or product page where intake is actually decided, not to this molecule page; no isolate-specific reproductive dataset is characterised.

Safety at a Glance

✅ Low / no toxicity

• Low acute toxicity. Paeonol has low acute oral toxicity in animal studies and a long history of exposure as the aromatic principle of moutan cortex ^{1Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →}.
• Poor bioavailability — not toxicity — is the real limit. Low water solubility, low oral bioavailability and volatility keep systemic exposure low; it is why so much research is on delivery systems ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}.
• Theoretical additive antiplatelet/vascular effect. Mechanistic actions on platelets and endothelium mean a possible additive effect with antiplatelet/anticoagulant drugs cannot be excluded; not quantified in humans ^{2,3Reference 2Vellasamy S et al. · 2021ReviewBiological Activities of Paeonol in Cardiovascular Diseases: A ReviewView study →Reference 3Yang C et al. · 2023ReviewReview of the Protective Mechanism of Paeonol on Cardiovascular DiseaseView study →}.
• Human safety data are combination products only. The apocynin–paeonol tablet and paeonol toothpaste were well tolerated, but the isolate lacks a full human safety package ^{22,23Reference 22Bihlet AR et al. · 2024RCTThe efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of apocynin and paeonol, APPA, in symptomatic knee OA: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trialView study →Reference 23Li J et al. · 2023RCTEfficacy of a toothpaste containing paeonol, potassium nitrate, and strontium chloride on dentine hypersensitivity: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in Chinese adultsView study →}.

Dosage

There is no established or recommended human dose for isolated paeonol. Efficacy figures in the literature are animal or in-vitro research doses — frequently tens to hundreds of mg/kg in rodents — and are not convertible to human self-dosing; and paeonol’s poor oral bioavailability means a swallowed dose delivers far less to plasma than in-vitro potency implies ^{1,24Reference 1Adki KM · 2020Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonolView study →Reference 24Chen S et al. · 2018Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanismView study →}. The only human exposures with defined dosing are combination products: the oral apocynin–paeonol tablet (APPA) studied in knee osteoarthritis ^{22Reference 22Bihlet AR et al. · 2024RCTThe efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of apocynin and paeonol, APPA, in symptomatic knee OA: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trialView study →} and a paeonol-containing toothpaste used topically for tooth sensitivity ^{23Reference 23Li J et al. · 2023RCTEfficacy of a toothpaste containing paeonol, potassium nitrate, and strontium chloride on dentine hypersensitivity: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in Chinese adultsView study →}. These are research figures, not a personal recommendation.

References

1. Adki KM, Kulkarni YA (2020). Chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology and recent novel drug delivery systems of paeonol. Life Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32179072/
2. Vellasamy S, et al. (2021). Biological Activities of Paeonol in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Review. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34443563/
3. Yang C, et al. (2023). Review of the Protective Mechanism of Paeonol on Cardiovascular Disease. Drug Design, Development and Therapy. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37525853/
4. Yu W, et al. (2022). A review on therapeutical potential of paeonol in atherosclerosis. Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35991897/
5. Lu L, et al. (2018). Beneficial Effects Exerted by Paeonol in the Management of Atherosclerosis. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30524649/
6. Li H, et al. (2009). Paeonol attenuates high-fat-diet-induced atherosclerosis in rabbits by anti-inflammatory activity. Planta Medica. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19003727/
7. Zhou M, et al. (2024). Paeonol Attenuates Atherosclerosis by Inhibiting Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Senescence via SIRT1/P53/TRF2 Signaling Pathway. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38202844/
8. Choy KW, et al. (2017). Chronic treatment with paeonol improves endothelial function in mice through inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated oxidative stress. PLoS One. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28562691/
9. Chou TC (2003). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of paeonol in carrageenan-evoked thermal hyperalgesia. British Journal of Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12871833/
10. Qiu C, et al. (2021). Paeonol ameliorates CFA-induced inflammatory pain by inhibiting HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB p65 pathway. Metabolic Brain Disease. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33180213/
11. Cheng S, et al. (2024). Paeonol alleviates ulcerative colitis by modulating PPAR-γ and nuclear factor-κB activation. Scientific Reports. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39117680/
12. Wang F, et al. (2019). Paeonol ameliorates lipopolysaccharides-induced acute lung injury by regulating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Die Pharmazie. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30782259/
13. Zhang Y, et al. (2024). Paeonol and glycyrrhizic acid in combination ameliorate the recurrent nitroglycerin-induced migraine-like phenotype in rats by regulating the GABBR2/TRPM8/PRKACA/TRPV1 pathway. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38908492/
14. Ramazi S, et al. (2022). Paeonol exerts neuroprotective and anticonvulsant effects in intrahippocampal kainate model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35718291/
15. Adki KM, et al. (2021). Neuroprotective effect of paeonol in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats. Life Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33577853/
16. Wang H, et al. (2015). [Neuroprotective effects of paeonol in a cell model of Parkinson disease]. Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25851972/
17. Xu F, et al. (2019). Paeonol Ameliorates Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Experimental Diabetes by Activating Akt. Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30941042/
18. Kim SH, et al. (2004). Paeonol inhibits anaphylactic reaction by regulating histamine and TNF-alpha. International Immunopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14996419/
19. Ding Y, et al. (2023). Paeonol attenuates Substance P-induced urticaria by inhibiting Src kinase phosphorylation in mast cells. Cellular Immunology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37224634/
20. Lee B, et al. (2008). Antiallergic effect of the root of Paeonia lactiflora and its constituents paeoniflorin and paeonol. Archives of Pharmacal Research. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18449501/
21. Liu LH, et al. (2020). Paeonol exerts anti-tumor activity against colorectal cancer cells by inducing G0/G1 phase arrest and cell apoptosis via inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. International Journal of Molecular Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32626954/
22. Bihlet AR, et al. (2024). The efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of apocynin and paeonol, APPA, in symptomatic knee OA: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38697511/
23. Li J, et al. (2023). Efficacy of a toothpaste containing paeonol, potassium nitrate, and strontium chloride on dentine hypersensitivity: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in Chinese adults. Heliyon. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37025919/
24. Chen S, et al. (2018). Paeonol nanoemulsion for enhanced oral bioavailability: optimization and mechanism. Nanomedicine (London). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29338580/
25. Fang W, et al. (2025). Quality Evaluation of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Moutan Cortex Based on UPLC Fingerprinting and Chemometrics Analysis. Metabolites. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40278410/
26. Wang J, et al. (2020). Paeonol Derivatives and Pharmacological Activities: A Review of Recent Progress. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31644406/
27. Barnes P, et al. (2025). Insight into the immunomodulatory and chemotherapeutic mechanisms of paeonol (Review). Medicine International. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40083771/

View all 27 references▾