Oleacein

Oleacein at a Glance

Oleacein is one of the two dialdehydic secoiridoids of olive (Olea europaea) — the phenolic pair that gives good extra-virgin olive oil much of its bite and its reputation. Chemically it is 3,4-DHPEA-EDA: the dialdehydic form of decarboxymethyl elenolic acid carrying hydroxytyrosol (a catechol), which makes it the hydroxytyrosol-bearing counterpart of oleocanthal (which carries the single-hydroxyl tyrosol instead). It is closely related to olive’s marquee polyphenol oleuropein, from whose aglycone it forms.

Its stand-out property is cardiovascular. In bioassay-guided fractionation of olive, oleacein — not oleuropein — is the fraction responsible for the leaf’s potent ACE inhibition, and it carries strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity on top of that ^{2Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →}. A growing preclinical literature reports that it shifts macrophages toward an anti-inflammatory phenotype, suppresses foam-cell formation, and protects endothelial cells — a coherent anti-atherosclerotic story ^{1,3,5Reference 1Filipek A et al. · 2020Oleacein and Foam Cell Formation in Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages: A Potential Strategy against Early and Advanced Atherosclerotic LesionsView study →Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →Reference 5Parzonko A et al. · 2013Oleuropein and oleacein may restore biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells impaired by angiotensin II via activation of Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathwayView study →}.

The honest posture for this molecule is that the chemistry is distinctive but the evidence is preclinical. Oleacein has never been dosed in humans as an isolate; it is an unstable dialdehyde that reacts readily with proteins and amino acids, so even measuring it in biological fluids is difficult ^{10Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}. As a constituent of a food eaten for millennia — and one of the phenols behind olive oil’s EFSA-recognised benefits — its safety posture is reassuring, but its human pharmacology is inferred from whole olive oil, not demonstrated for the pure compound ^{13,14Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 14Zimmer A et al. · 2023The Immunomodulatory Effects of a 6-Month Extra Virgin Olive Oil Intervention on Monocyte Cytokine Secretion and Plasma Cytokine Levels in Dyslipidemic and Post-Infarct Patients: A Clinical Pilot StudyView study →}.

Oleacein & Oleocanthal

The single most useful orientation for this molecule is that olive oil carries two dialdehydic secoiridoids that differ by one hydroxyl group. Both are dialdehydes built on decarboxymethyl elenolic acid; the difference is the phenol attached:

• Oleacein (3,4-DHPEA-EDA) carries hydroxytyrosol — a catechol (two adjacent hydroxyls on the ring). That extra hydroxyl is what makes oleacein the stronger radical scavenger of the pair.
• Oleocanthal (p-HPEA-EDA) carries tyrosol — a single-hydroxyl phenol. It is oleocanthal, not oleacein, that produces the peppery throat-catch of fresh olive oil and the much-publicised ibuprofen-like COX inhibition.

Read against oleuropein, the relationship is genealogical: oleuropein is hydroxytyrosol esterified to elenolic acid with a glucose, and oleacein is what remains when that glucose is lost and the elenolic acid is decarboxymethylated to the open dialdehyde — i.e. oleacein is a downstream, aglycone-derived relative of oleuropein ^{10,12Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →Reference 12Olmo-Cunillera A et al. · 2023Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive OilView study →}. The same catechol that oleacein shares with hydroxytyrosol is the chemical basis of its antioxidant strength, while the two reactive aldehyde groups explain both its biological reactivity and its instability (see Pharmacokinetics).

This pairing matters for reading the literature: papers frequently test oleocanthal and oleacein side by side ^{6Reference 6Carpi S et al. · 2019The Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenols Oleocanthal and Oleacein Counteract Inflammation-Related Gene and miRNA Expression in Adipocytes by Attenuating NF-κB ActivationView study →}, and olive-oil “phenolic” health claims lump the whole secoiridoid fraction together — so an effect credited to “olive polyphenols” is often shared between these two molecules plus hydroxytyrosol, not attributable to oleacein alone.

A Potent ACE Inhibitor

Oleacein’s distinctive cardiovascular signature is direct inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) — the enzyme that captopril and the “-pril” drugs block to lower blood pressure. In a classic bioassay-guided fractionation of olive (Olea europaea and Olea lancea) leaf extract, the activity tracked to oleacein, isolated as a strong ACE inhibitor with an IC50 of ~26 µM — and the authors noted that secoiridoids had not previously been described as ACE inhibitors ^{2Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →}. Crucially, in the same assay the secoiridoid glycosides, oleuropein and ligstroside, showed little ACE inhibition ^{2Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →} — so olive’s popular billing as a “natural ACE inhibitor” is carried chiefly by oleacein, not by the marker polyphenol it is usually credited to.

The vascular story extends beyond ACE. Oleacein (with oleuropein) restored the migration, adhesion and tube-forming capacity of endothelial progenitor cells that had been impaired by angiotensin II, an effect tied to activation of the Nrf2 / heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) antioxidant axis ^{5Reference 5Parzonko A et al. · 2013Oleuropein and oleacein may restore biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells impaired by angiotensin II via activation of Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathwayView study →}. And on the atherosclerosis side, oleacein acts on the monocyte–macrophage arm of vascular disease: it raises CD163 (the anti-inflammatory scavenger receptor) and IL-10 on human macrophages, pushing them toward a plaque-stabilising M2-like phenotype ^{4Reference 4Filipek A et al. · 2015Oleacein enhances anti-inflammatory activity of human macrophages by increasing CD163 receptor expressionView study →}, and it suppresses foam-cell formation in human monocyte-derived macrophages by down-regulating the CD36 and SRA1 lipid-uptake receptors ^{1Reference 1Filipek A et al. · 2020Oleacein and Foam Cell Formation in Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages: A Potential Strategy against Early and Advanced Atherosclerotic LesionsView study →}. Taken together this is a genuinely compound-specific cardiovascular profile — ACE inhibition plus endothelial rescue plus anti-foam-cell activity — but every strand of it is in-vitro or ex-vivo, not a human blood-pressure trial of the isolate.

What It's Used For

Oleacein’s evidence base is uniformly preclinical: a distinctive mechanistic profile built from cell and animal work, with the human layer supplied only by whole olive oil, in which oleacein is one phenol among several.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Support is an experimental score — weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro) and volume. A beta, not a validated metric. Every row here is preclinical (isolate in cells/animals, or whole olive oil in humans); no row rests on a human trial of isolated oleacein. Read the per-row basis.

01Anti-inflammatory / immunomodulatoryShaky40%Multiple in-vitro (human & murine macrophages) + one animal model ^{4,6,7,8Reference 4Filipek A et al. · 2015Oleacein enhances anti-inflammatory activity of human macrophages by increasing CD163 receptor expressionView study →Reference 6Carpi S et al. · 2019The Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenols Oleocanthal and Oleacein Counteract Inflammation-Related Gene and miRNA Expression in Adipocytes by Attenuating NF-κB ActivationView study →Reference 7Muñoz-García R et al. · 2022AnimalEffects of Oleacein, a New Epinutraceutical Bioproduct from Extra Virgin Olive Oil, in LPS-Activated Murine Immune CellsView study →Reference 8Cirmi S et al. · 2022Oleacein Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in THP-1-Derived Macrophages by the Inhibition of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB PathwayView study →}

02ACE inhibition / vascular (antihypertensive)Shaky34%Isolate ACE IC50 ~26 µM + endothelial-progenitor rescue; no human isolate trial ^{2,5Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →Reference 5Parzonko A et al. · 2013Oleuropein and oleacein may restore biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells impaired by angiotensin II via activation of Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathwayView study →}

03Antioxidant / anti-atherosclerotic (foam cells, LDL)Shaky30%In-vitro human monocyte-derived macrophages + antioxidant chemistry ^{1,3Reference 1Filipek A et al. · 2020Oleacein and Foam Cell Formation in Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages: A Potential Strategy against Early and Advanced Atherosclerotic LesionsView study →Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →}

04Neuroinflammation / neuroprotectiveShaky22%Single animal model (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis) ^{9Reference 9Gutiérrez-Miranda B et al. · 2020Oleacein Attenuates the Pathogenesis of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis through Both Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory EffectsView study →}

Mechanisms

The load-bearing row is ACE inhibition: it is the one action oleacein performs that oleuropein essentially does not, and it is why olive’s “natural ACE-inhibitor” reputation belongs mechanistically to this fraction ^{2Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →}.

Pharmacokinetics

Oleacein’s defining PK fact is instability. It is a dialdehyde, and those two aldehyde groups react readily with primary amines to form Schiff-base adducts, so it conjugates rapidly with proteins and amino acids — to the point that detecting intact oleacein in cell-culture medium or biological fluids is very difficult ^{10Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}. In aqueous/biological media it is gradually converted to a more water-soluble hydrated form (an “oleaceinediol”) ^{10Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}. Layered on top of that reactivity are the usual olive-secoiridoid limits: poor intestinal absorption, extensive gut-microbial and first-pass metabolism, and low systemic bioavailability of the parent compound; what circulates after olive-oil intake is largely hydroxytyrosol and its conjugates, into which the secoiridoids break down ^{13Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}. Two practical consequences follow: (1) robust human PK for the isolate — Cmax, half-life, absolute bioavailability — is essentially uncharacterised, and market availability of pure oleacein for such study is limited ^{3Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →}; and (2) the high in-vitro potencies above should be read against the difficulty of reaching, and sustaining, comparable concentrations in tissue from a dietary dose ^{10,13Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}.

Clinical Trials

There are no controlled clinical trials of isolated oleacein. The only human layer is whole extra-virgin olive oil, where oleacein is one phenol among many: a 6-month EVOO intervention in dyslipidemic and post-infarct patients, for instance, did not meaningfully shift monocyte phenotype or cytokine output (with a paradoxical IL-1β rise in post-infarct monocytes) — a reminder that isolate mechanisms do not automatically translate to a whole-food dose ^{14Reference 14Zimmer A et al. · 2023The Immunomodulatory Effects of a 6-Month Extra Virgin Olive Oil Intervention on Monocyte Cytokine Secretion and Plasma Cytokine Levels in Dyslipidemic and Post-Infarct Patients: A Clinical Pilot StudyView study →}. All disease-oriented oleacein data are preclinical.

Last checked: July 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

Oleacein inverts the usual balance: almost all of the molecule-level evidence is the isolate, but it is isolate evidence in cells and animals, while the only human evidence is the plant/food — whole olive oil in which oleacein is never the sole variable. The isolated-oleacein studies are genuinely compound-specific and mechanistically rich (ACE IC50, endothelial rescue, macrophage phenotype switch, foam-cell suppression, EAE) ^{1,2,4,5,9Reference 1Filipek A et al. · 2020Oleacein and Foam Cell Formation in Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages: A Potential Strategy against Early and Advanced Atherosclerotic LesionsView study →Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →Reference 4Filipek A et al. · 2015Oleacein enhances anti-inflammatory activity of human macrophages by increasing CD163 receptor expressionView study →Reference 5Parzonko A et al. · 2013Oleuropein and oleacein may restore biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells impaired by angiotensin II via activation of Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathwayView study →Reference 9Gutiérrez-Miranda B et al. · 2020Oleacein Attenuates the Pathogenesis of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis through Both Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory EffectsView study →}, which is a strength — they tell us what this molecule does. Their weakness is uniform: they stop at the cell or the mouse.

The human olive-oil data, meanwhile, cannot be attributed to oleacein. EFSA’s recognised benefit for “olive polyphenols and protection of LDL from oxidative damage” is a whole-fraction claim shared with oleocanthal and hydroxytyrosol; and where a human EVOO study looked specifically at the monocyte biology oleacein modulates in vitro, the whole-oil intervention was largely null ^{14Reference 14Zimmer A et al. · 2023The Immunomodulatory Effects of a 6-Month Extra Virgin Olive Oil Intervention on Monocyte Cytokine Secretion and Plasma Cytokine Levels in Dyslipidemic and Post-Infarct Patients: A Clinical Pilot StudyView study →}. The correct framing is therefore: a broad, compound-specific preclinical profile for the isolate, connected to — but not proven by — the human evidence for olive oil as a whole ^{3,13Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}.

Its Formation & Role in the Plant

Oleacein is not a primary biosynthetic product so much as a derivative of the oleuropein pathway. In olive, the secoiridoid branch of the terpenoid pathway builds the glycoside oleuropein (hydroxytyrosol + elenolic acid + glucose); when that glycoside is deglucosylated to its aglycone and the elenolic-acid portion is decarboxymethylated, the open dialdehyde oleacein (3,4-DHPEA-EDA) results ^{10,12Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →Reference 12Olmo-Cunillera A et al. · 2023Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive OilView study →}. Much of this happens during fruit crushing and malaxation in oil production, when the olive’s endogenous β-glucosidases act on oleuropein and the reactive aglycones rearrange — which is why oleacein is characteristically an olive-oil phenol, and why processing choices (malaxation time and temperature, olive storage) strongly change how much appears ^{12Reference 12Olmo-Cunillera A et al. · 2023Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive OilView study →}.

Functionally, the dialdehydic secoiridoids are part of olive’s chemical defence: like the parent oleuropein they are reactive toward proteins and deter herbivores and microbes, and they contribute to the oil’s oxidative stability — oleacein and oleocanthal are among the phenols that extend an extra-virgin oil’s shelf life ^{12Reference 12Olmo-Cunillera A et al. · 2023Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive OilView study →}.

Prevalence in Nature

Oleacein is, in practical terms, an olive molecule — most prominent in extra-virgin olive oil, where it and oleocanthal are the two major dialdehydic secoiridoids. Its concentration is highly variable: direct quantitative-NMR measurement of oleocanthal and oleacein established these as key characterising phenols of EVOO, but reported oleacein levels swing widely — commonly on the order of tens to a couple of hundred mg/kg of oil, and from non-detectable to several hundred mg/kg across cultivars and studies, driven by cultivar (some cultivars lack it entirely), harvest timing and processing ^{11,12Reference 11Karkoula E et al. · 2012Direct measurement of oleocanthal and oleacein levels in olive oil by quantitative (1)H NMRView study →Reference 12Olmo-Cunillera A et al. · 2023Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive OilView study →}. Early-harvest, robustly bitter oils tend to be richest.

It also occurs in olive leaf, where bioassay-guided fractionation first isolated it as the ACE-inhibitory fraction ^{2Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →}, and in olive fruit and olive-mill by-products — the latter an area of interest for recovering oleacein from what would otherwise be waste ^{10Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}. Outside Olea/Oleaceae it is not a widely reported constituent; oleacein is best understood as a processing-influenced marker of olive oil quality rather than a broadly distributed plant phenol.

Discovery & Synthesis

Oleacein was characterised in olive in the early 1990s as one of the dialdehydic secoiridoids of the fruit and oil — the 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol-elenolic acid dialdehyde (3,4-DHPEA-EDA) — its name derived from the olive genus Olea. Its defining pharmacological identity came in 1996, when Hansen and colleagues isolated it from Olea europaea and Olea lancea leaf by bioassay-guided fractionation and identified it as a strong ACE inhibitor (IC50 ~26 µM) — the first report of a secoiridoid with this activity ^{2Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →}. (The primary structural-characterisation papers predate PubMed indexing and are reported consistently across the modern reviews rather than verified here to an original digitised copy ^{3,10Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}.)

Oleacein is obtained by extraction, not commercial total synthesis — chiefly from extra-virgin olive oil, olive leaf and olive-processing by-products, with dedicated purification methods developed precisely because the molecule’s instability makes it hard to isolate and keep ^{10Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}. Its formation is partly a processing phenomenon (see Its Formation & Role in the Plant): controlled malaxation and enzymatic conversion of oleuropein are as relevant to yield as any synthetic route. Pure oleacein remains a limited-availability research chemical, which is itself one reason its bioavailability is so poorly studied ^{3Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →}.

Patents: not yet researched.

Toxicity & Safety

Oleacein carries a low toxicity flag. It is a natural phenol of a food humans have eaten for millennia — extra-virgin olive oil — and belongs to the same secoiridoid family (with hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein) that anchors olive oil’s EFSA-recognised health claims; there is no signal of meaningful toxicity at dietary or supplemental phenolic levels ^{3,13Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}. No dedicated isolate toxicology package (repeat-dose, genotoxicity) is characterised for oleacein specifically, so the low flag reflects its dietary pedigree and chemical class rather than a purpose-built safety dossier — an honest scope limit, not a claim of proven safety.

Safety at a Glance

✅ Low / no toxicity

• Dietary olive-oil phenol. A natural constituent of extra-virgin olive oil with a long dietary history and no toxicity signal at food-level phenolic intake ^{3,13Reference 3Naruszewicz M et al. · 2015OleaceinView study →Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}.
• Theoretical additive blood-pressure lowering. As an ACE inhibitor and vascular modulator in preclinical work, high supplemental intake could in principle add to antihypertensive medication — relevant to anyone on BP or cardiovascular drugs ^{2,5Reference 2Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →Reference 5Parzonko A et al. · 2013Oleuropein and oleacein may restore biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells impaired by angiotensin II via activation of Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathwayView study →}.
• Isolate ≠ olive oil. Human safety and benefit data are for whole olive oil, in which oleacein is one phenol among several; pure-isolate human data do not exist.
• Unstable, poorly characterised. As a reactive dialdehyde with poor absorption and no isolate toxicology package, oleacein’s behaviour as a purified supplement is not established ^{10,13Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →Reference 13Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}.

Pregnancy and lactation are per-herb / per-supplement decisions and are not adjudicated on this molecule page; no dedicated human reproductive data exist for isolated oleacein, and no isolate-specific verdict is issued here.

Dosage

There is no established dose for isolated oleacein. It has never been given to humans as a defined drug, and its instability as a dialdehyde makes it hard to formulate and study ^{10Reference 10Huang Y et al. · 2024ReviewOleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effectsView study →}. Real-world exposure is dietary, through the phenolic fraction of extra-virgin olive oil and, secondarily, olive-leaf extracts:

These are food-content and in-vitro figures, not a personal recommendation. Dietary oleacein is highest from early-harvest, robustly bitter extra-virgin oils ^{11,12Reference 11Karkoula E et al. · 2012Direct measurement of oleocanthal and oleacein levels in olive oil by quantitative (1)H NMRView study →Reference 12Olmo-Cunillera A et al. · 2023Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive OilView study →}.

References

1. Filipek A, Mikołajczyk TP, Guzik TJ, Naruszewicz M (2020). Oleacein and Foam Cell Formation in Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages: A Potential Strategy against Early and Advanced Atherosclerotic Lesions. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32283795/
2. Hansen K, Adsersen A, Christensen SB, Jensen SR, Nyman U, Smitt UW (1996). Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lancea. Phytomedicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23194770/
3. Naruszewicz M, Czerwińska ME, Kiss AK (2015). Oleacein. Translation from Mediterranean diet to potential antiatherosclerotic drug. Current Pharmaceutical Design. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25312731/
4. Filipek A, Czerwińska ME, Kiss AK, Wrzosek M, Naruszewicz M (2015). Oleacein enhances anti-inflammatory activity of human macrophages by increasing CD163 receptor expression. Phytomedicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26655408/
5. Parzonko A, Czerwińska ME, Kiss AK, Naruszewicz M (2013). Oleuropein and oleacein may restore biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells impaired by angiotensin II via activation of Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway. Phytomedicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23809250/
6. Carpi S, Scoditti E, Massaro M, Polini B, Manera C, Digiacomo M, et al. (2019). The Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenols Oleocanthal and Oleacein Counteract Inflammation-Related Gene and miRNA Expression in Adipocytes by Attenuating NF-κB Activation. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31766503/
7. Muñoz-García R, Sánchez-Hidalgo M, Montoya T, Alcarranza M, Ortega-Vidal J, Altarejos J, Alarcón-de-la-Lastra C (2022). Effects of Oleacein, a New Epinutraceutical Bioproduct from Extra Virgin Olive Oil, in LPS-Activated Murine Immune Cells. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36355509/
8. Cirmi S, Maugeri A, Russo C, Musumeci L, Navarra M, Lombardo GE (2022). Oleacein Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in THP-1-Derived Macrophages by the Inhibition of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Pathway. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35163130/
9. Gutiérrez-Miranda B, Gallardo I, Melliou E, Cabero I, Álvarez Y, Magiatis P, Hernández M, Nieto ML (2020). Oleacein Attenuates the Pathogenesis of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis through Both Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects. Antioxidants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33233421/
10. Huang Y, Guan Q, Zhang Z, Wang P, Li C (2024). Oleacein: A comprehensive review of its extraction, purification, absorption, metabolism, and health effects. Food Chemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37660602/
11. Karkoula E, Skantzari A, Melliou E, Magiatis P (2012). Direct measurement of oleocanthal and oleacein levels in olive oil by quantitative (1)H NMR. Establishment of a new index for the characterization of extra virgin olive oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23116297/
12. Olmo-Cunillera A, Pérez M, López-Yerena A, Abuhabib MM, Ninot A, Romero-Aroca A, Vallverdú-Queralt A, Lamuela-Raventós RM (2023). Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive Oil. Antioxidants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37760079/
13. Nikou T, Sakavitsi ME, Kalampokis E, Halabalaki M (2022). Metabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human Studies. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36145149/
14. Zimmer A, Otrante A, Zoubdane N, Nguyen M, Fülöp T, Khalil A (2023). The Immunomodulatory Effects of a 6-Month Extra Virgin Olive Oil Intervention on Monocyte Cytokine Secretion and Plasma Cytokine Levels in Dyslipidemic and Post-Infarct Patients: A Clinical Pilot Study. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37686851/

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