Chalepensin

Chalepensin at a Glance

Chalepensin is a furanocoumarin carrying a five-carbon prenyl group at position 3 — structurally, 3-(1,1-dimethylallyl)psoralen. It is named for Ruta chalepensis, the fringed rue it was first drawn from, and its distribution appears confined to the Rutaceae ^{6Reference 6Nahar L et al. · 2021ReviewChalepin and chalepensin: occurrence, biosynthesis and therapeutic potential — reviewView study →}.

Two things make it consequential. It is the isolated antifertility principle of rue: fractionating chloroform extracts of root, stem and leaf against a rat post-coital model led to chalepensin as the active component, acting at the earliest stages of pregnancy — and with some toxicity of its own ^{1Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →}. And it is a mechanism-based inhibitor of several cytochrome P450 enzymes, meaning the enzyme metabolises it into a reactive epoxide that then destroys the enzyme ^{3,4Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →}.

Alongside that, it is the most potent anthelmintic molecule rue is known to make, with a selectivity index against Trichinella spiralis larvae in the thousands ^{8Reference 8Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal modelView study →}.

The Prenyl Group Changes What It Does to DNA

Chalepensin is a psoralen with one addition, and the addition matters. Plain psoralen, bergapten and xanthotoxin are the molecules behind rue’s blistering phototoxicity and behind clinical PUVA therapy: under UV-A they react at both the furan and the pyrone double bonds, forming a monoadduct with one DNA strand and then a crosslink joining both strands. The interstrand crosslink is what makes a psoralen a potent photosensitiser.

Chalepensin’s 3-prenyl substituent sits on the pyrone ring and blocks that second reaction. When it was tested for DNA photobinding under its systematic name, 3-(α,α-dimethylallyl)psoralen was found to form mainly 4′,5′-monofunctional adducts — furan-side monoadducts, without the bifunctional crosslinking that defines the class ^{7Reference 7Vedaldi D et al. · 1979In vitroVedaldi D, Dall’Acqua F, Caffieri S, Rodighiero G (1979). 3-(α,α-Dimethylallyl)-psoralen: a linear furocoumarin forming mainly 4′,5′-monofunctional adducts with DNA — in vitro. Photochemistry and Photobiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/482377/View study →}. It is the same principle that makes rue’s furoquinoline alkaloids (skimmianine, dictamnine) milder photosensitisers than its furanocoumarins, arrived at by a different structural route.

This is not a safety clearance. A monoadduct is still a covalent lesion in DNA, and chalepensin is also photochemically unstable — it isomerises under light to the coumarin rutolide (clausindin) ^{12Reference 12Reisch J · 1975In vitroPhotoisomerization of chalepensin to rutolide (clausindin) — in vitroView study →}. But it does mean chalepensin should not be assumed to carry bergapten’s photosensitising potency simply because it is a furanocoumarin from the same plant.

What It's Used For

The literature splits cleanly into three strands that have almost nothing to do with one another: reproductive toxicology from the late 1980s, a sustained programme of drug-metabolism work from Taiwan in 2011–2013, and a recent Mexican–Spanish antiparasitic and antitumour series.

It is the antifertility principle, and that is a toxicology finding, not a use.Chalepensin was isolated as the active component of an anti-implantation rat extract and acts in the first days of pregnancy; the original authors could not separate the effect from the compound’s own toxicity ^{1Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →}.

Mechanism-based P450 inhibition, on three enzymes.It inactivates CYP2A6 (k_inact 0.044 min⁻¹, K_I 2.64 µM), CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by being turned into a reactive epoxide that then destroys the enzyme — inhibition that does not reverse on dialysis ^{3,4Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →}.

The honest headline:the antiparasitic numbers are genuinely striking and entirely preclinical, there is no human data of any kind, and no formulation of rue delivers a known dose of this molecule.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Mechanisms

Target / pathway	Effect	Relevant to
CYP2A6 (and CYP1A1, CYP3A4)	epoxidation → reactive intermediate → irreversible enzyme inactivation	drug interactions
Constitutive androstane receptor (CAR)	activation → Cyp2b induction in mice	drug interactions
Early pregnancy / implantation	anti-implantation in rats; mechanism unresolved	antifertility
Nematode thymidylate synthase (predicted)	docking affinity; cuticle disruption observed	anthelmintic
Cyclin A2–CDK2 (predicted)	docking affinity consistent with a cytostatic effect	antitumour
DNA, on UV-A activation	4′,5′-monofunctional adducts; no interstrand crosslink	photochemistry

Pharmacokinetics

Poorly characterised, but the metabolic route is known and it is the interesting part. Chalepensin is epoxidised on the furan ring by the same P450s it inhibits; the epoxide is unstable, is detected as the corresponding dihydrodiol, and is conjugated with glutathione — glutathione conjugation reduced the inactivation of CYP2A6 and protected CYP3A4, so cellular thiol status modulates its own toxicity ^{3,4Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →}. Oral administration in mice reduced hepatic Cyp2a activity ex vivo, which establishes that enough intact compound reaches the liver after an oral dose to matter ^{5Reference 5Lo WS et al. · 2012AnimalA dual function of the furanocoumarin chalepensin in inhibiting Cyp2a and inducing Cyp2b in mice: the protein stabilization and receptor-mediated activation — animal modelView study →}.

What is missing is everything quantitative in a mammal: no absorption figure, no bioavailability, no half-life, no human data. And critically, no one has measured what concentration of chalepensin a rue tea or tincture delivers, which is the number that would tell you whether the enzyme-inactivation thresholds are ever reached in practice.

Clinical Trials

None, and none should be expected. There are no clinical trials of chalepensin for any indication.

Completed	Planned	Terminated	Preclinical
None	—	—	Antifertility, P450, anthelmintic, antitumour

Last checked: September 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

The isolate question is unusually clean here: nearly every result cited is purified chalepensin, isolated from R. chalepensis or R. graveolens and tested on its own ^{1,3,4,8,9,10,11Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →Reference 8Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal modelView study →Reference 9Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic activity of chalepensin and graveoline isolated from Ruta chalepensis L.: in vitro evaluation against Strongyloides venezuelensis — in vitroView study →Reference 10Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2026AnimalPharmacological potential of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L.: acute toxicity and in vivo antitumor activity in the L5178Y-R murine model — animal modelView study →Reference 11Al-Majmaie S et al. · 2021In vitroAnti-MRSA constituents from Ruta chalepensis (Rutaceae) grown in Iraq, and in silico studies on two of most active compounds, chalepensin and 6-hydroxy-rutin 3′,7-dimethyl ether — in vitroView study →}. The exception is the 1991 post-coital study, which used whole-plant preparations and is cited here only to correct a claim commonly attached to this molecule ^{2Reference 2Gandhi M et al. · 1991AnimalPost-coital antifertility action of Ruta graveolens in female rats and hamsters — animal modelView study →}.

The transfer problem runs the other way. Rue is a low-dose herb whose internal use is discouraged, its chalepensin content varies with species, chemotype, plant part and season, and nothing standardises a preparation to this compound. So the isolate work establishes what the molecule does, and establishes nothing about the exposure anyone actually receives. Note too that a substantial slice of the antiparasitic and antibacterial literature is R. chalepensis, not R. graveolens — related species with overlapping but not identical chemistry, and worth keeping straight when reading rue’s phytochemistry.

Its Role in Plants

Chalepensin belongs to the prenylated coumarins, built by attaching a five-carbon isoprene unit to a coumarin scaffold; it and its dihydrofuran relative chalepin are the pair that defines this chemistry in Ruta, and their biosynthesis and restricted Rutaceae distribution were reviewed together in 2021 ^{6Reference 6Nahar L et al. · 2021ReviewChalepin and chalepensin: occurrence, biosynthesis and therapeutic potential — reviewView study →}. The prenyl group raises lipophilicity, which is the usual explanation for why prenylated coumarins are more membrane-active — and therefore more antimicrobial and more insecticidal — than their unsubstituted parents.

Its activity profile across nematodes, protozoa and bacteria ^{8,9,11,13Reference 8Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal modelView study →Reference 9Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic activity of chalepensin and graveoline isolated from Ruta chalepensis L.: in vitro evaluation against Strongyloides venezuelensis — in vitroView study →Reference 11Al-Majmaie S et al. · 2021In vitroAnti-MRSA constituents from Ruta chalepensis (Rutaceae) grown in Iraq, and in silico studies on two of most active compounds, chalepensin and 6-hydroxy-rutin 3′,7-dimethyl ether — in vitroView study →Reference 13Quintanilla-Licea R et al. · 2014In vitroAntiprotozoal activity against Entamoeba histolytica of plants used in northeast Mexican traditional medicine: bioactive compounds from Lippia graveolens and Ruta chalepensis — in vitroView study →} fits the standard reading of furanocoumarins as chemical defence, and rue’s total furanocoumarin output responds to elicitation, so this is a defended plant rather than an incidentally toxic one.

Prevalence in Nature

Chalepensin is a genus Ruta compound with a narrow reach beyond it. It was first isolated from Ruta chalepensis and takes its name from that species; it is also reported from R. graveolens, R. angustifolia, and from Boenninghausenia and Clausena — with distribution restricted to the Rutaceae as far as the 2021 review could establish ^{6Reference 6Nahar L et al. · 2021ReviewChalepin and chalepensin: occurrence, biosynthesis and therapeutic potential — reviewView study →}. It has additionally been reported from Dorstenia foetida and from the Yucatán tree Stauranthus perforatus, both furanocoumarin-rich plants.

Within rue, it is present in leaf, stem and root — the antifertility fractionation drew on all three ^{1Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →}, and the recent antiparasitic isolations used leaves and stems ^{8Reference 8Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal modelView study →}. No reliable percentage figure for chalepensin content in field-grown rue was found, so no per-source comparison can be drawn; the general pattern for the plant is that furanocoumarins concentrate in the aerial parts while the acridone alkaloids sit in the roots, and that yield varies strongly with chemotype and provenance.

Discovery & Synthesis

Chalepensin was first isolated from Ruta chalepensis, which is where its name comes from, and was characterised alongside chalepin, the dihydrofuranocoumarin that shares its 3-prenyl substitution ^{6Reference 6Nahar L et al. · 2021ReviewChalepin and chalepensin: occurrence, biosynthesis and therapeutic potential — reviewView study →}. Its photoisomerisation to rutolide (clausindin) was described in 1975 ^{12Reference 12Reisch J · 1975In vitroPhotoisomerization of chalepensin to rutolide (clausindin) — in vitroView study →} — an early demonstration that this molecule is not stable to light, which is worth knowing when interpreting phytochemical analyses of dried or sun-exposed plant material.

Biosynthetically it is a coumarin with an isoprene unit attached at C-3; the plausible route was worked out in the 2021 review ^{6Reference 6Nahar L et al. · 2021ReviewChalepin and chalepensin: occurrence, biosynthesis and therapeutic potential — reviewView study →}. There is no commercial production: it is isolated in milligram quantities from Ruta for research, and is not manufactured.

Patents: not yet researched (future patent-loop pass).

Toxicity & Safety

Chalepensin is flagged toxic, and the flag rests on two independent grounds rather than on acute lethality — for which, in a single-dose mouse study, it showed none at 1,000 mg/kg ^{10Reference 10Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2026AnimalPharmacological potential of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L.: acute toxicity and in vivo antitumor activity in the L5178Y-R murine model — animal modelView study →}.

Safety at a Glance

ToxicDrug interactionsPhotosensitivity

Antifertility in pregnancy. It is the isolated compound behind rue’s abortifacient reputation, acting at the earliest stage of pregnancy in rats ^{1Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →}. Nothing about that finding is reassuring at any dose.
Mechanism-based P450 inactivation. It permanently disables CYP2A6, CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by being metabolised into a reactive epoxide ^{3,4Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →}. CYP3A4 handles a very large share of prescribed medicines.
A photoreactive furanocoumarin. It forms monoadducts with DNA under UV-A ^{7Reference 7Vedaldi D et al. · 1979In vitroVedaldi D, Dall’Acqua F, Caffieri S, Rodighiero G (1979). 3-(α,α-Dimethylallyl)-psoralen: a linear furocoumarin forming mainly 4′,5′-monofunctional adducts with DNA — in vitro. Photochemistry and Photobiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/482377/View study →} — weaker than a crosslinking psoralen, but not inert.
No human data at all. Every figure here is animal or in vitro, and no rue preparation is standardised to this compound.

Full Safety & Interactions Detail

Reproductive. The antifertility result is the defining safety fact. Chalepensin was isolated as the compound responsible for an anti-implantation effect in rats, acting in the first days after coitus, and the isolating authors recorded that it carried “some toxicity” and that the two could not be separated ^{1Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →}. This is the molecular counterpart of rue’s traditional and documented status as an abortifacient, and it is why the herb is contraindicated in pregnancy. The related 1991 study should not be cited as confirmation for the isolate: it tested plant preparations, found them active in rats and inactive in hamsters, and included no chalepensin arm ^{2Reference 2Gandhi M et al. · 1991AnimalPost-coital antifertility action of Ruta graveolens in female rats and hamsters — animal modelView study →}.

Interactions — the practical hazard. Mechanism-based inhibition differs from ordinary competitive inhibition in a way that matters: the enzyme is destroyed rather than occupied, so activity returns only as new enzyme is synthesised, over days rather than hours. Chalepensin does this to CYP3A4 ^{4Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →}, the enzyme responsible for metabolising a large fraction of prescription drugs, and to CYP2A6 ^{3Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →} and CYP1A1 ^{4Reference 4Ueng YF et al. · 2013In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitroView study →}. In mice it also induces Cyp2b by activating CAR ^{5Reference 5Lo WS et al. · 2012AnimalA dual function of the furanocoumarin chalepensin in inhibiting Cyp2a and inducing Cyp2b in mice: the protein stabilization and receptor-mediated activation — animal modelView study →}, so the net effect on a co-administered drug depends on which enzyme clears it. Rue’s co-occurring furanocoumarins, bergapten and xanthotoxin, are themselves established CYP3A4 inhibitors — the same chemistry that makes grapefruit juice a drug-interaction problem — so the plant presents several inhibitors at once. Assume a genuine interaction risk and no data with which to size it.

Photochemistry. Chalepensin forms mainly 4′,5′-monofunctional adducts with DNA rather than the interstrand crosslinks its unsubstituted relatives make ^{7Reference 7Vedaldi D et al. · 1979In vitroVedaldi D, Dall’Acqua F, Caffieri S, Rodighiero G (1979). 3-(α,α-Dimethylallyl)-psoralen: a linear furocoumarin forming mainly 4′,5′-monofunctional adducts with DNA — in vitro. Photochemistry and Photobiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/482377/View study →}, and rue’s photomutagenicity in the standard assay is dominated by bergapten rather than by the prenylated coumarins. Treat it as a contributor to rue’s phototoxicity, not the principal cause.

Scope. No repeat-dose toxicology, no genotoxicity panel, no carcinogenicity data and no human safety data exist for chalepensin. The one acute-toxicity study is a single intraperitoneal dose in mice ^{10Reference 10Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2026AnimalPharmacological potential of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L.: acute toxicity and in vivo antitumor activity in the L5178Y-R murine model — animal modelView study →}, and its clean result should not be generalised.

Dosage

There is no human dose for chalepensin and there should not be one — an antifertility compound that irreversibly inactivates CYP3A4 is not a candidate for self-administration. The figures below are experimental, recorded for scale only.

Setting	Route	Dose or concentration
Rat post-coital antifertility ^{1Reference 1Kong YC et al. · 1989AnimalAntifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal modelView study →}	intragastric, days 1–10	active fraction of a chloroform extract
Mouse hepatic Cyp2a suppression ^{5Reference 5Lo WS et al. · 2012AnimalA dual function of the furanocoumarin chalepensin in inhibiting Cyp2a and inducing Cyp2b in mice: the protein stabilization and receptor-mediated activation — animal modelView study →}	oral, 7 days	10 mg/kg/day
Mouse trichinellosis ^{8Reference 8Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal modelView study →}	oral, 3 days	50 mg/kg/day
Mouse lymphoma, acute-toxicity arm ^{10Reference 10Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2026AnimalPharmacological potential of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L.: acute toxicity and in vivo antitumor activity in the L5178Y-R murine model — animal modelView study →}	intraperitoneal	100 and 1,000 mg/kg, single dose
CYP2A6 inactivation ^{3Reference 3Ueng YF et al. · 2011In vitroMechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal modelView study →}	enzyme assay	K_I 2.64 µM
T. spiralis L1 larvae ^{8Reference 8Rodríguez-Garza NE et al. · 2025In vitroAntiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal modelView study →}	culture	LC50 0.1 µg/mL
MRSA panel ^{11Reference 11Al-Majmaie S et al. · 2021In vitroAnti-MRSA constituents from Ruta chalepensis (Rutaceae) grown in Iraq, and in silico studies on two of most active compounds, chalepensin and 6-hydroxy-rutin 3′,7-dimethyl ether — in vitroView study →}	culture	MIC 32–128 µg/mL

These are doses studied in research and are not a personal recommendation.

References

Kong YC, Lau CP, Wat KH, et al. (1989). Antifertility principle of Ruta graveolens — animal model. Planta Medica. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2748734/
Gandhi M, Lal R, Sankaranarayanan A, Sharma PL (1991). Post-coital antifertility action of Ruta graveolens in female rats and hamsters — animal model. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1753787/
Ueng YF, Chen CC, Chung YT, et al. (2011). Mechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP)2A6 by chalepensin in recombinant systems, in human liver microsomes and in mice in vivo — in vitro and animal model. British Journal of Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21418183/
Ueng YF, Chen CC, Yamazaki H, et al. (2013). Mechanism-based inhibition of CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 by the furanocoumarin chalepensin — in vitro. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23257392/
Lo WS, Lim YP, Chen CC, et al. (2012). A dual function of the furanocoumarin chalepensin in inhibiting Cyp2a and inducing Cyp2b in mice: the protein stabilization and receptor-mediated activation — animal model. Archives of Toxicology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22790670/
Nahar L, Al-Majmaie S, Al-Groshi A, Rasul A, Sarker SD (2021). Chalepin and chalepensin: occurrence, biosynthesis and therapeutic potential — review. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33799365/
Vedaldi D, Dall’Acqua F, Caffieri S, Rodighiero G (1979). 3-(α,α-Dimethylallyl)-psoralen: a linear furocoumarin forming mainly 4′,5′-monofunctional adducts with DNA — in vitro. Photochemistry and Photobiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/482377/
Rodríguez-Garza NE, Marín M, Sánchez-Montejo J, et al. (2025). Antiparasitic efficacy of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L. against Trichinella spiralis: in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking study — animal model. Acta Tropica. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41338405/
Rodríguez-Garza NE, Marín M, Sánchez-Montejo J, et al. (2025). Antiparasitic activity of chalepensin and graveoline isolated from Ruta chalepensis L.: in vitro evaluation against Strongyloides venezuelensis — in vitro. Pathogens. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40430740/
Rodríguez-Garza NE, Quintanilla-Licea R, Caballero-Hernández DE, et al. (2026). Pharmacological potential of chalepensin from Ruta chalepensis L.: acute toxicity and in vivo antitumor activity in the L5178Y-R murine model — animal model. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41654069/
Al-Majmaie S, Nahar L, Rahman MM, et al. (2021). Anti-MRSA constituents from Ruta chalepensis (Rutaceae) grown in Iraq, and in silico studies on two of most active compounds, chalepensin and 6-hydroxy-rutin 3′,7-dimethyl ether — in vitro. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33669881/
Reisch J, Szendrei K (1975). Photoisomerization of chalepensin to rutolide (clausindin) — in vitro. Archiv der Pharmazie. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1221980/
Quintanilla-Licea R, Mata-Cárdenas BD, Vargas-Villarreal J, et al. (2014). Antiprotozoal activity against Entamoeba histolytica of plants used in northeast Mexican traditional medicine: bioactive compounds from Lippia graveolens and Ruta chalepensis — in vitro. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25517343/