Rutin

Rutin at a Glance

Rutin is quercetin’s rutinose glycoside — quercetin with a disaccharide attached — found in buckwheat, capers and citrus peel.

Functionally it is a colonic prodrug. Rutin itself is poorly absorbed; gut bacteria cleave the sugar and what enters circulation is largely quercetin, which means most of rutin’s systemic pharmacology is quercetin’s.

Its clinical reputation in chronic venous insufficiency mostly belongs to the semi-synthetic derivatives oxerutins and troxerutin, not to plain rutin. The one finding distinctively its own is inhibition of protein disulfide isomerase, an antithrombotic mechanism that does not come from quercetin.

What It's Used For

Rutin is quercetin carrying the disaccharide rutinose at its 3-O position — and two facts govern everything written about it. First, it is a poorly-absorbed prodrug of quercetin: the intact molecule mostly survives the small intestine and is cleaved by colonic bacteria to quercetin, so what reaches the blood is quercetin metabolites, hours later and highly variable between people ^{15,16,17Reference 15Hollman PC et al. · 1995Absorption of dietary quercetin glycosides and quercetin in healthy ileostomy volunteersView study →Reference 16Hollman PC et al. · 1997Relative bioavailability of the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin from various foods in manView study →Reference 17Erlund I et al. · 2000Pharmacokinetics of quercetin from quercetin aglycone and rutin in healthy volunteersView study →}.

Second, and consequently, most of rutin’s clinical reputation actually belongs to semi-synthetic derivatives — the hydroxyethylrutosides (oxerutins, Venoruton) and troxerutin, engineered for solubility precisely because plain rutin absorbs so poorly. Read “rutin has strong venous evidence” with both caveats in front of it: the venous trials are of the derivatives, not the raw compound.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Support is an experimental score I’m building — a composite weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro > review) and study volume, tempered for isolate-vs-derivative match and bioavailability. It’s a beta: a fast way to rank strength of evidence at a glance, not a validated metric. A high score means the claim is well-supported, not that the effect is large — and here the score reflects the derivative where noted, not plain rutin. Each application links to its write-up.

01Chronic venous insufficiencyPromising60%Cochrane phlebotonics review + HR RCTs — but for oxerutins/HR, not plain rutin (~25–30% for rutin itself) ^{1,2,3Reference 1Martinez-Zapata MJ et al. · 2020Systematic reviewPhlebotonics for venous insufficiencyView study →Reference 2Aziz Z et al. · 2015Systematic reviewA systematic review of the efficacy and tolerability of hydroxyethylrutosides for improvement of the signs and symptoms of chronic venous insufficiencyView study →Reference 3Petruzzellis V et al. · 2002RCTOxerutins (Venoruton) — efficacy in chronic venous insufficiency, a double-blind, randomised, controlled studyView study →}

02Hemorrhoidal diseaseShaky40%RCTs of flavonoid mixtures / troxerutin combinations; rutin one component ^{6,7Reference 6Corsale I et al. · 2018RCTFlavonoid mixture (diosmin, troxerutin, rutin, hesperidin, quercetin) in the treatment of I–III degree haemorrhoidal disease — a double-blind multicentre prospective comparative studyView study →Reference 7Basile M et al. · 2001RCTParenteral troxerutin and carbazochrome combination in the treatment of post-haemorrhoidectomy status — a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase IV studyView study →}

03Antiplatelet & antithrombotic (PDI)Shaky30%Rutin-specific mechanism (Jasuja) — but human proof used isoquercetin ^{9,11Reference 9Jasuja R et al. · 2012Protein disulfide isomerase inhibitors constitute a new class of antithrombotic agents (rutin as prototype)View study →Reference 11Zwicker JI et al. · 2019Targeting protein disulfide isomerase with the flavonoid isoquercetin to improve hypercoagulability in advanced cancerView study →}

04Capillary fragility (“vitamin P”)Shaky25%Historical + surrogate-endpoint microcirculation; concept discredited ^{1,13Reference 1Martinez-Zapata MJ et al. · 2020Systematic reviewPhlebotonics for venous insufficiencyView study →Reference 13Cesarone MR et al. · 2002RCTVariations in plasma free radicals in venous hypertension with HR (Paroven, Venoruton) — placebo-controlled, randomised trialView study →}

Mechanisms

Pharmacokinetics

Rutin is best understood as a poorly-absorbed colonic prodrug of quercetin. The rhamnose-glucose cap (rutinose) resists the small intestine’s β-glucosidases — which can free quercetin glucosides for early absorption — so rutin must reach the colon, where microbiota strip the sugars and release quercetin for uptake ^{15,16Reference 15Hollman PC et al. · 1995Absorption of dietary quercetin glycosides and quercetin in healthy ileostomy volunteersView study →Reference 16Hollman PC et al. · 1997Relative bioavailability of the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin from various foods in manView study →}. In ileostomy volunteers, quercetin glucosides from onions were ~52% absorbed but the rutinoside only ~17% ^{15Reference 15Hollman PC et al. · 1995Absorption of dietary quercetin glycosides and quercetin in healthy ileostomy volunteersView study →}; in intact people, rutin delivered only ~30% of the relative bioavailability of onion glucosides, and plasma quercetin peaked at ~9 h (versus <1 h for onions) — the signature of colonic handling ^{16,17Reference 16Hollman PC et al. · 1997Relative bioavailability of the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin from various foods in manView study →Reference 17Erlund I et al. · 2000Pharmacokinetics of quercetin from quercetin aglycone and rutin in healthy volunteersView study →}. Because that cleavage is done by gut bacteria, absorption is microbiome-dependent and highly variable between individuals ^{18Reference 18Riva A et al. · 2020Conversion of rutin, a prevalent dietary flavonol, by the human gut microbiotaView study →}.

Three consequences: the circulating species is quercetin conjugates, not intact rutin; inter-individual variability is large; and this is exactly why the semi-synthetic hydroxyethylrutosides / troxerutin were engineered — hydroxyethylating rutin’s phenols yields a more soluble, better-standardized derivative for venoactive medicine, a distinct entity from dietary rutin ^{19Reference 19Bianchi M et al. · 2018Troxerutin, a mixture of O-hydroxyethyl derivatives of the natural flavonoid rutin — chemical stability and analytical aspectsView study →}.

Clinical trials

Rutin’s trial record is substantial but sits mostly under its derivatives: dozens of oxerutin/hydroxyethylrutoside and troxerutin trials in venous disease (pooled by Cochrane), plus combination-product hemorrhoid trials. Trials of plain rutin monotherapy are scarce and mostly old; the modern antithrombotic program moved to isoquercetin.

Venous (derivatives)	Hemorrhoids (combos)	Antithrombotic	Plain-rutin monotherapy
Many RCTs + Cochrane	Several RCTs	Human (isoquercetin)	Very few / historical

Last checked: July 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

Rutin is unusually easy to over-credit, in three directions. The clinical evidence is mostly for a different molecule: the venous-disease data belong to the semi-synthetic oxerutins/hydroxyethylrutosides and troxerutin, and the antithrombotic human data to isoquercetin — plain rutin is the raw material, not the tested agent ^{1,11,19Reference 1Martinez-Zapata MJ et al. · 2020Systematic reviewPhlebotonics for venous insufficiencyView study →Reference 11Zwicker JI et al. · 2019Targeting protein disulfide isomerase with the flavonoid isoquercetin to improve hypercoagulability in advanced cancerView study →Reference 19Bianchi M et al. · 2018Troxerutin, a mixture of O-hydroxyethyl derivatives of the natural flavonoid rutin — chemical stability and analytical aspectsView study →}. The systemic pharmacology is mostly quercetin’s: because rutin is cleaved to quercetin before absorption, its antioxidant/anti-inflammatory “effects” are largely quercetin-metabolite effects ^{16Reference 16Hollman PC et al. · 1997Relative bioavailability of the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin from various foods in manView study →}. And in herbs, rutin is a co-occurring flavonoid, repeatedly named alongside quercetin in the antioxidant fraction of plants like hawthorn, calendula, buchu, hibiscus and goldenrod — usually as a whole-extract contributor, and often with its actions bundled with quercetin’s rather than demonstrated for rutin alone. Note too that horse-chestnut’s venous reputation belongs to escin, not to the rutin it also contains. Read the venous evidence as evidence for oxerutins, the antithrombosis as evidence for the mechanism (and for isoquercetin), and rutin itself as a food-derived quercetin delivery form.

Prevalence in Nature

Rutin is one of the most widely distributed flavonol glycosides in the plant kingdom — quercetin bearing rutinose (rhamnose-α(1→6)-glucose) at the 3-O position — occurring across many families but reaching its highest food concentrations in buckwheat (Fagopyrum) ^{23,24Reference 23Ganeshpurkar A · 2017The pharmacological potential of rutin (occurrence, biosynthesis, food contents)View study →Reference 24Habtemariam S · 2019Antioxidant and rutin content analysis of leaves of the common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) grown in the United KingdomView study →}. Within buckwheat there is a large split: Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum) carries roughly 5–10× more rutin than common buckwheat, and the green vegetative tissue dwarfs the grain — common-buckwheat leaves run ~2–3 g/100 g on a dry-weight basis (with the wider literature citing 2–10 g/100 g DW), which is why buckwheat sprouts, leaves and Tartary flour/bran are the standout dietary sources ^{24,25Reference 24Habtemariam S · 2019Antioxidant and rutin content analysis of leaves of the common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) grown in the United KingdomView study →Reference 25Bai CZ et al. · 2015Rutin, quercetin, and free amino acid analysis in buckwheat (Fagopyrum) seeds from different locationsView study →}. Thermal/wet processing degrades it (endogenous rutinosidase converts rutin to quercetin). Beyond buckwheat, notable sources include capers (~332 mg/100 g), black olives, asparagus, citrus and peels, elderberry/elderflower, rue, unripe figs and apple peel ^{23,26Reference 23Ganeshpurkar A · 2017The pharmacological potential of rutin (occurrence, biosynthesis, food contents)View study →Reference 26Mudge E et al. · 2016Variation of select flavonols and chlorogenic acid content of elderberry collected throughout the eastern United States (rutin the principal flavonol)View study →}. The pharmaceutical raw material, however, is usually the exceptionally rich flower buds of the Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora japonica, up to ~15–20% rutin), not a food ^{23Reference 23Ganeshpurkar A · 2017The pharmacological potential of rutin (occurrence, biosynthesis, food contents)View study →}.

Biosynthetically, rutin is quercetin (built through the phenylpropanoid → flavonoid pathway) finished by two glycosylation steps: a 3-O-glucosyltransferase adds glucose to give isoquercitrin, then a rhamnosyltransferase adds rhamnose (1→6) to complete the rutinoside ^{23Reference 23Ganeshpurkar A · 2017The pharmacological potential of rutin (occurrence, biosynthesis, food contents)View study →}. Accumulation is strongly induced by UV-B and abiotic stress, consistent with a photoprotective/antioxidant role. There is essentially no non-plant source.

Discovery & Synthesis

“Rutin” is taken directly from Ruta graveolens (common rue), the plant from which it was obtained and named in the nineteenth century (commonly dated to ~1842 and attributed to the chemist August Weiss — a detail I could confirm only through secondary sources, so treat the date and author as reported-but-unverified). It has also been called rutoside, sophorin, and by its systematic name quercetin-3-O-rutinoside. In the 1930s rutin became central to the “vitamin P” episode: Szent-Györgyi and colleagues proposed a “vitamin P” (for permeability) to explain citrus-flavonoid effects on capillary fragility — a designation later discredited, since flavonoids are not vitamins, though the vascular framing is why rutin’s derivatives persist in venoactive medicine.

Structurally, rutin is the flavonol quercetin bearing rutinose (rhamnose-(1→6)-glucose) at the 3-O position — the specific rhamnosyl cap that defies small-intestinal enzymes and forces colonic activation. Commercially it is extracted from plants, not synthesized: the dominant feedstocks are Sophora japonica flower buds (~15–20% rutin) and, especially in Brazil, Dimorphandra mollis (fava d’anta), with buckwheat a lower-yield source ^{22Reference 22Paniwnyk L et al. · 2001The extraction of rutin from flower buds of Sophora japonicaView study →}. These same rutin-rich feedstocks are the starting material for commercial quercetin (made by hydrolyzing the rutinose off rutin) and for the hydroxyethylrutosides/troxerutin (made by hydroxyethylating rutin) — so rutin, quercetin and the oxerutins are three products of one supply chain ^{19,22Reference 19Bianchi M et al. · 2018Troxerutin, a mixture of O-hydroxyethyl derivatives of the natural flavonoid rutin — chemical stability and analytical aspectsView study →Reference 22Paniwnyk L et al. · 2001The extraction of rutin from flower buds of Sophora japonicaView study →}.

Patents: not yet researched (future patent-loop pass).

Toxicity & Safety

Rutin has an exceptionally benign safety profile and a long history of dietary and supplemental exposure (buckwheat, apples, tea, citrus). In genotoxicity testing it behaves as expected for a food flavonol — no bone-marrow micronucleus induction in mice, and DNA damage only at extreme oral doses — so ordinary consumption is not considered clastogenic ^{21Reference 21da Silva J et al. · 2002Evaluation of the genotoxic effect of rutin and quercetin by comet assay and micronucleus testView study →}, and its poor intact absorption further limits systemic exposure. The “vitamin P” label is a historical misnomer, not a nutritional classification.

One finding sits oddly against that benign reputation and is worth stating plainly. Testing fractions of a Ruta graveolens methanol extract on the isolated mouse uterus, the n-butanol-soluble fraction was the most potent uterotonic in a dose-dependent manner — and rutin, the major compound isolated from it, produced a uterotonic response of its own, peaking at a concentration of 0.25 mg/mL and reaching about 69% of the response to a reference concentration of oxytocin ^{28Reference 28Salib JY et al. · 2014In vitroNew quinoline alkaloid from Ruta graveolens aerial parts and evaluation of the antifertility activity — in vitro isolated mouse uterusView study →}. Two limits belong with the number: this is an isolated-tissue preparation, not an animal or a person, and 0.25 mg/mL in an organ bath is not a concentration oral rutin produces anywhere in the body, since rutin is cleaved to quercetin before absorption and circulates as quercetin conjugates. It is a property of the molecule at the concentration tested, not a demonstrated risk from a supplement — but it is a real result for a flavonol usually described as inert.

The interaction signals it carries are inherited from quercetin, because rutin is functionally a quercetin prodrug. In a controlled animal study, rutin markedly reduced the oral bioavailability of the immunosuppressant cyclosporine (AUC down ~57%) via P-glycoprotein and CYP3A4 — a meaningful caution for that narrow-margin drug and, by extension, other CYP3A/P-gp substrates ^{20Reference 20Yu CP et al. · 2011Quercetin and rutin reduced the bioavailability of cyclosporine from Neoral through activating P-glycoprotein and CYP 3A4View study →}. And because rutin/quercetin have antiplatelet and PDI-inhibiting activity, caution is reasonable alongside anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs (warfarin, clopidogrel, aspirin) on additive-bleeding grounds — a precautionary, mechanism-based flag rather than a documented bleeding series ^{9,20Reference 9Jasuja R et al. · 2012Protein disulfide isomerase inhibitors constitute a new class of antithrombotic agents (rutin as prototype)View study →Reference 20Yu CP et al. · 2011Quercetin and rutin reduced the bioavailability of cyclosporine from Neoral through activating P-glycoprotein and CYP 3A4View study →}.

Dosage

There is no established dose of plain rutin, because its own clinical trials are scarce — the venous-disease evidence used the semi-synthetic oxerutins / hydroxyethylrutosides at roughly 0.9–1 g/day ^{1,2,3Reference 1Martinez-Zapata MJ et al. · 2020Systematic reviewPhlebotonics for venous insufficiencyView study →Reference 2Aziz Z et al. · 2015Systematic reviewA systematic review of the efficacy and tolerability of hydroxyethylrutosides for improvement of the signs and symptoms of chronic venous insufficiencyView study →Reference 3Petruzzellis V et al. · 2002RCTOxerutins (Venoruton) — efficacy in chronic venous insufficiency, a double-blind, randomised, controlled studyView study →}, and the antithrombotic human evidence used isoquercetin (500–1,000 mg/day), not rutin ^{11Reference 11Zwicker JI et al. · 2019Targeting protein disulfide isomerase with the flavonoid isoquercetin to improve hypercoagulability in advanced cancerView study →}. Dietary rutin intake from buckwheat, capers and citrus is far lower and is not standardized.

These are doses used in research on the derivatives, not a recommendation for plain rutin — whose poor, microbiome-dependent absorption means an oral dose delivers mostly quercetin metabolites, variably. Anyone on anticoagulants or narrow-margin drugs (see interactions) should seek professional guidance.

References

1. Martinez-Zapata MJ, Vernooij RW, Simancas-Racines D, et al. (2020). Phlebotonics for venous insufficiency. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 11, CD003229. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33141449/
2. Aziz Z, Tang WL, Chong NJ, Tho LY. (2015). A systematic review of the efficacy and tolerability of hydroxyethylrutosides for improvement of the signs and symptoms of chronic venous insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 40(2), 177–185. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25630350/
3. Petruzzellis V, Troccoli T, Candiani C, et al. (2002). Oxerutins (Venoruton) — efficacy in chronic venous insufficiency, a double-blind, randomised, controlled study. Angiology, 53(3), 257–263. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12025912/
4. Cesarone MR, Incandela L, De Sanctis MT, Belcaro G, et al. (2002). Treatment of edema and increased capillary filtration in venous hypertension with HR (Paroven, Venoruton) — placebo-controlled, randomised, dose-ranging trial. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 7(Suppl 1), S21–S24. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12011969/
5. Stuard S, Cesarone MR, Belcaro G, et al. (2008). Five-year treatment of chronic venous insufficiency with O-(β-hydroxyethyl)-rutosides — safety aspects. International Journal of Angiology, 17(3), 143–148. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22477419/
6. Corsale I, Carrieri P, Martellucci J, et al. (2018). Flavonoid mixture (diosmin, troxerutin, rutin, hesperidin, quercetin) in the treatment of I–III degree haemorrhoidal disease — a double-blind multicentre prospective comparative study. International Journal of Colorectal Disease, 33(11), 1595–1600. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29934701/
7. Basile M, Gidaro S, Pacella M, Biffignandi PM. (2001). Parenteral troxerutin and carbazochrome combination in the treatment of post-haemorrhoidectomy status — a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase IV study. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 17(4), 256–261. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922398/
8. Vanscheidt W, Rabe E, Naser-Hijazi B, Ramelet AA. (2002). The efficacy and safety of a coumarin-/troxerutin-combination (SB-LOT) in patients with chronic venous insufficiency — a double-blind placebo-controlled randomised study. VASA, 31(3), 185–190. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12236023/
9. Jasuja R, Passam FH, Kennedy DR, et al. (2012). Protein disulfide isomerase inhibitors constitute a new class of antithrombotic agents (rutin as prototype). The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 122(6), 2104–2113. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22565308/
10. Stopa JD, Neuberg D, Puligandla M, Furie B, et al. (2017). Protein disulfide isomerase inhibition blocks thrombin generation in humans by interfering with platelet factor V activation. JCI Insight, 2(1), e89373. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28097231/
11. Zwicker JI, Schlechter BL, Stopa JD, et al. (2019). Targeting protein disulfide isomerase with the flavonoid isoquercetin to improve hypercoagulability in advanced cancer. JCI Insight, 4(4), e125851. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30652973/
12. Chen D, Liu Y, Liu P, Zhou Y, et al. (2022). Orally delivered rutin in a lipid-based nano-formulation exerts strong antithrombotic effects by protein disulfide isomerase inhibition. Drug Delivery, 29(1), 1824–1835. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35674505/
13. Cesarone MR, Incandela L, De Sanctis MT, et al. (2002). Variations in plasma free radicals in venous hypertension with HR (Paroven, Venoruton) — placebo-controlled, randomised trial. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 7(Suppl 1), S25–S28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12011970/
14. Levitt LM, Cholst MR. (1948). Rutin therapy for increased capillary fragility and retinopathy associated with diabetes mellitus. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 215(4), 456. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18898011/
15. Hollman PC, de Vries JH, van Leeuwen SD, Mengelers MJ, Katan MB. (1995). Absorption of dietary quercetin glycosides and quercetin in healthy ileostomy volunteers. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62(6), 1276–1282. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7491892/
16. Hollman PC, van Trijp JM, Buysman MN, et al. (1997). Relative bioavailability of the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin from various foods in man. FEBS Letters, 418(1–2), 152–156. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9414116/
17. Erlund I, Kosonen T, Alfthan G, et al. (2000). Pharmacokinetics of quercetin from quercetin aglycone and rutin in healthy volunteers. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 56(8), 545–553. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11151743/
18. Riva A, Kolimár D, Spittler A, et al. (2020). Conversion of rutin, a prevalent dietary flavonol, by the human gut microbiota. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 585428. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33408702/
19. Bianchi M, Canavesi R, et al. (2018). Troxerutin, a mixture of O-hydroxyethyl derivatives of the natural flavonoid rutin — chemical stability and analytical aspects. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 150, 248–257. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29258044/
20. Yu CP, Wu PP, Hou YC, et al. (2011). Quercetin and rutin reduced the bioavailability of cyclosporine from Neoral through activating P-glycoprotein and CYP 3A4. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(9), 4644–4648. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21466223/
21. da Silva J, Herrmann SM, Heuser V, et al. (2002). Evaluation of the genotoxic effect of rutin and quercetin by comet assay and micronucleus test. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 40(7), 941–947. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12065216/
22. Paniwnyk L, Beaufoy E, Lorimer JP, Mason TJ. (2001). The extraction of rutin from flower buds of Sophora japonica. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 8(3), 299–301. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11441614/
23. Ganeshpurkar A, Saluja AK. (2017). The pharmacological potential of rutin (occurrence, biosynthesis, food contents). Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 25(2), 149–164. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28344465/
24. Habtemariam S. (2019). Antioxidant and rutin content analysis of leaves of the common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) grown in the United Kingdom. Antioxidants, 8(6), 160. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31163698/
25. Bai CZ, Feng ML, Hao XL, et al. (2015). Rutin, quercetin, and free amino acid analysis in buckwheat (Fagopyrum) seeds from different locations. Genetics and Molecular Research, 14(4). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26782554/
26. Mudge E, Applequist WL, Finley J, et al. (2016). Variation of select flavonols and chlorogenic acid content of elderberry collected throughout the eastern United States (rutin the principal flavonol). Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26877585/
27. Neveu V, Perez-Jiménez J, Vos F, et al. Phenol-Explorer: database on polyphenol content in foods — rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside) food values (capers, olive, asparagus, buckwheat products). http://phenol-explorer.eu/contents/polyphenol/296
28. Salib JY, El-Toumy SA, Hassan EM, Shafik NH, Abdel-Latif SM, Brouard I (2014). New quinoline alkaloid from Ruta graveolens aerial parts and evaluation of the antifertility activity — in vitro isolated mouse uterus. Natural Product Research. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24697339/

View all 28 references▾