Ligstroside

Ligstroside at a Glance

Ligstroside is a secoiridoid glucoside of the olive (Olea europaea) and the close structural twin of the plant’s marquee polyphenol, oleuropein. The two differ by a single hydroxyl group: oleuropein is an ester of the catechol hydroxytyrosol, while ligstroside is the corresponding ester of the simpler phenol tyrosol — the same elenolic-acid glucoside carrying the mono-phenol instead of the catechol.

Its importance is mostly as a precursor. When an olive is crushed, the fruit’s own enzymes convert ligstroside into its aglycone and then into oleocanthal — the dialdehyde behind the peppery throat-sting and ibuprofen-like activity of fresh extra-virgin olive oil — exactly as oleuropein feeds the parallel route to oleacein. Ligstroside is oleocanthal’s tyrosol-bearing parent.

The honest posture for this molecule is that ligstroside itself is thinly studied. Most of the biology attributed to it in the literature actually belongs to its aglycone, to oleocanthal, or to whole olive oil, in which ligstroside is one phenol among many. There is a genuine ligstroside-specific in-vivo signal — a mouse mitochondrial/longevity study dosed the glucoside itself ^{6Reference 6Grewal R et al. · 2020Purified oleocanthal and ligstroside protect against mitochondrial dysfunction in models of early Alzheimer’s disease and brain ageingView study →} — but no human data on the isolate. As a constituent of a food eaten for millennia, it carries a low-toxicity profile.

Ligstroside, Oleuropein & the Olive Secoiridoids

The single most useful orientation for this molecule is where it sits on the olive secoiridoid map. Olive’s secoiridoids are all built on elenolic acid; they differ in which phenol is esterified to it and whether the glucose and methyl-ester groups are still attached:

• Oleuropein — elenolic-acid glucoside esterified to hydroxytyrosol (a catechol, two adjacent ring hydroxyls). The dominant secoiridoid of olive leaf and the bitter principle of the fruit.
• Ligstroside — the same elenolic-acid glucoside esterified to tyrosol (a mono-phenol, one ring hydroxyl). The tyrosol analogue of oleuropein, and generally the less abundant of the pair.

That one missing hydroxyl runs all the way down each family’s chemistry: the hydroxytyrosol (catechol) branch — oleuropein and its downstream oleacein — carries the stronger direct antioxidant capacity and olive’s potent ACE inhibition, while the tyrosol (mono-phenol) branch — ligstroside and its downstream oleocanthal — carries the COX/anti-inflammatory pungency story ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. The contrast is pointed on blood pressure: in the bioassay-guided fractionation that pinned olive’s ACE inhibition on oleacein, the secoiridoid glycosides — ligstroside and oleuropein alike — showed little ACE inhibition ^{1Reference 1Hansen K et al. · 1996Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lanceaView study →}, so ligstroside sits firmly on the non-ACE branch of the family. The two branches co-occur in the same olives and olive oils and are routinely measured and studied together as “the olive secoiridoids” ^{4,11Reference 4Karkoula E et al. · 2012Direct measurement of oleocanthal and oleacein levels in olive oil by quantitative ¹H NMRView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

One consequence for reading the literature: an effect credited to “olive polyphenols” or to “the olive secoiridoids” is usually shared across this whole family — oleuropein, ligstroside, their aglycones, hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol — and is rarely attributable to ligstroside alone ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

From Ligstroside to Oleocanthal

Ligstroside’s headline role is as the reservoir that generates oleocanthal. Oleocanthal is not stored ready-made in the intact olive; it is created when the fruit is milled. During crushing and malaxation the olive’s endogenous β-glucosidase cleaves the glucose from ligstroside to give ligstroside aglycone, and an elenolic-acid methylesterase then removes the methyl-ester group, opening the structure to the reactive dialdehyde that is oleocanthal (p-HPEA-EDA) ^{11Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. The exactly parallel enzymatic cascade on oleuropein yields oleacein on the catechol branch ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

This is why oleocanthal is a marker of fresh, robustly-milled extra-virgin olive oil rather than a fixed property of the olive: how much ligstroside is present, and how completely the enzymes convert it during processing, sets the oil’s oleocanthal level. Historically the two ends of this pathway were connected before either had a common name — the pungency principle of virgin olive oil was first identified as the “deacetoxy-ligstroside aglycon” ^{2Reference 2Andrewes P et al. · 2003Sensory properties of virgin olive oil polyphenols: identification of deacetoxy-ligstroside aglycon as a key contributor to pungencyView study →}, later christened oleocanthal and shown to inhibit COX like ibuprofen ^{3Reference 3Beauchamp GK et al. · 2005Phytochemistry: ibuprofen-like activity in extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

The ligstroside aglycone is itself a bioactive intermediate, not merely a way-station: it is the specific form tested in most of the “ligstroside” anti-inflammatory and anticancer work below ^{5,8,12Reference 5De Stefanis D et al. · 2019Anti-Proliferative Effects of an Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Extract Enriched in Ligstroside Aglycone and Oleocanthal on Human Liver Cancer Cell LinesView study →Reference 8Castejón ML et al. · 2022AnimalLigstroside aglycon, an extra virgin olive oil secoiridoid, prevents inflammation by regulation of MAPKs, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, Nrf2/HO-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophagesView study →Reference 12Mahmud MA et al. · 2025The Olive Oil Monophenolic Secoiridoid Ligstroside Aglycone Suppresses Melanoma Progression by Targeting the BRAF Signaling PathwayView study →}. For present purposes, keep the three species distinct — the glucoside (ligstroside, as stored in the fruit), the aglycone (the de-glucosylated intermediate), and oleocanthal (the open dialdehyde) — because the evidence attaches to different ones.

What It's Used For

Ligstroside’s evidence base is thin and uniformly preclinical, and it is split across three chemical species — the glucoside, its aglycone, and (upstream of) oleocanthal. Only one strand tested the intact glucoside; the rest are the aglycone or the whole oil.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Support is an experimental score — weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro) and volume. A beta, not a validated metric. Every row here is preclinical, and most test the aglycone or whole oil rather than the intact glucoside — read the per-row basis.

01Neuroprotective / Mitochondrial & AgeingShaky32%Purified ligstroside raised ATP and extended lifespan/memory in aged mice ^{6Reference 6Grewal R et al. · 2020Purified oleocanthal and ligstroside protect against mitochondrial dysfunction in models of early Alzheimer’s disease and brain ageingView study →}

02Anticancer (Aglycone, Preclinical)Shaky28%Aglycone: liver-cancer cells + melanoma xenograft via BRAF ^{5,12Reference 5De Stefanis D et al. · 2019Anti-Proliferative Effects of an Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Extract Enriched in Ligstroside Aglycone and Oleocanthal on Human Liver Cancer Cell LinesView study →Reference 12Mahmud MA et al. · 2025The Olive Oil Monophenolic Secoiridoid Ligstroside Aglycone Suppresses Melanoma Progression by Targeting the BRAF Signaling PathwayView study →}

03Anti-Inflammatory (Aglycone)Shaky26%Aglycone in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages; multi-pathway ^{8Reference 8Castejón ML et al. · 2022AnimalLigstroside aglycon, an extra virgin olive oil secoiridoid, prevents inflammation by regulation of MAPKs, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, Nrf2/HO-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophagesView study →}

04Antiviral (Isolate)Shaky18%Single in-vitro study of ligstroside (as “ligustroside”) vs parainfluenza ^{10Reference 10Ma SC et al. · 2001In vitroIn vitro evaluation of secoiridoid glucosides from the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum as antiviral agentsView study →}

Mechanisms

The load-bearing row is the first one: ligstroside’s most consequential “action” is a transformation — it is the enzymatic substrate that becomes oleocanthal — so much of its health interest is really the interest in what it turns into ^{2,3,11Reference 2Andrewes P et al. · 2003Sensory properties of virgin olive oil polyphenols: identification of deacetoxy-ligstroside aglycon as a key contributor to pungencyView study →Reference 3Beauchamp GK et al. · 2005Phytochemistry: ibuprofen-like activity in extra-virgin olive oilView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

Pharmacokinetics

Ligstroside is a large, polar secoiridoid glucoside, and it shares the pharmacokinetic limits of its family. Like oleuropein it is poorly absorbed intact and is extensively hydrolysed presystemically — by the plant’s own enzymes during processing, and by gut microbiota and mucosal esterases/glucosidases after ingestion — so what actually circulates is largely the small phenol tyrosol (ligstroside’s hydrolysis analogue of hydroxytyrosol) and downstream conjugates, not the intact glucoside ^{9,11Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. Human metabolism-and-bioavailability reviews of olive constituents treat the secoiridoid glucosides collectively as low-bioavailability parents whose absorbed activity is carried by their simple-phenol breakdown products ^{9,11Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. Two practical consequences follow: (1) robust human PK for isolated ligstroside — Cmax, half-life, absolute bioavailability — is uncharacterised, not least because pure material is scarce (see Discovery & Synthesis); and (2) the in-vitro and mouse potencies above should be read against the difficulty of reaching comparable tissue concentrations of the intact molecule from a dietary intake ^{6,9Reference 6Grewal R et al. · 2020Purified oleocanthal and ligstroside protect against mitochondrial dysfunction in models of early Alzheimer’s disease and brain ageingView study →Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →}.

Clinical Trials

There are no controlled clinical trials of isolated ligstroside — nor of its aglycone. The only human layer is whole olive oil / olive-leaf extract, in which ligstroside is one secoiridoid among several and is not the isolated variable; those trials are reported on the oleuropein and oleocanthal pages. All ligstroside-attributed disease data are preclinical.

Last checked: July 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

Ligstroside is an unusually clear case of evidence scattered across three chemical species. The intact glucoside has essentially one dedicated line of isolate work — the mitochondrial/longevity programme in cells and mice ^{6Reference 6Grewal R et al. · 2020Purified oleocanthal and ligstroside protect against mitochondrial dysfunction in models of early Alzheimer’s disease and brain ageingView study →} — which is genuinely compound-specific and is the best reason to treat ligstroside as more than a precursor. The aglycone carries the anti-inflammatory and anticancer isolate data ^{5,8,12Reference 5De Stefanis D et al. · 2019Anti-Proliferative Effects of an Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Extract Enriched in Ligstroside Aglycone and Oleocanthal on Human Liver Cancer Cell LinesView study →Reference 8Castejón ML et al. · 2022AnimalLigstroside aglycon, an extra virgin olive oil secoiridoid, prevents inflammation by regulation of MAPKs, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, Nrf2/HO-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophagesView study →Reference 12Mahmud MA et al. · 2025The Olive Oil Monophenolic Secoiridoid Ligstroside Aglycone Suppresses Melanoma Progression by Targeting the BRAF Signaling PathwayView study →}, but that is a different (de-glucosylated) molecule, and in the liver-cancer study it was co-delivered with oleocanthal ^{5Reference 5De Stefanis D et al. · 2019Anti-Proliferative Effects of an Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Extract Enriched in Ligstroside Aglycone and Oleocanthal on Human Liver Cancer Cell LinesView study →}. And the whole-oil human evidence — the olive-oil and olive-leaf trials — cannot be assigned to ligstroside at all, since it is one secoiridoid among oleuropein, oleocanthal, oleacein, hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol ^{9,11Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

The correct framing is therefore: a single, real preclinical signal for the isolate glucoside, a modest preclinical profile for its aglycone, and no human evidence for either — all connected to olive oil’s broader reputation through the shared secoiridoid chemistry, but not proven by it ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. Read any “ligstroside benefit” claim by first asking which of the three species was actually tested.

Its Formation & Role in the Plant

Ligstroside is a product of the secoiridoid branch of the terpenoid pathway in Oleaceae — the same route that builds oleuropein. Geraniol-derived monoterpene precursors are elaborated through the oleoside/secologanin route to the elenolic-acid glucoside, which is then esterified to a phenol: to tyrosol it gives ligstroside, to hydroxytyrosol it gives oleuropein ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. Ligstroside is generally the minor partner of the pair in olive tissue.

Functionally, ligstroside belongs to the olive’s chemical-defence repertoire. Its real defensive punch is delivered on tissue damage: when herbivory or milling ruptures the fruit, endogenous β-glucosidase acts on ligstroside to release the reactive aglycone and, ultimately, the pungent dialdehyde oleocanthal — a wound-activated deterrent, exactly paralleling how oleuropein feeds oleacein on the catechol branch ^{11Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. So the intact glucoside is best read as a stored, stable precursor that the plant weaponises into a reactive aldehyde only when attacked.

Prevalence in Nature

Ligstroside is, for practical purposes, an Oleaceae secoiridoid — most familiar from the olive (Olea europaea), where it occurs in the fruit, the oil and the leaf as the tyrosol-bearing twin of oleuropein, and generally at lower levels than oleuropein ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. Its name, though, records a different origin: it was characterised from privet (Ligustrum), and it recurs across other members of the olive family — ash (Fraxinus), jasmine (Jasminum) and lilac (Syringa) — which is why the same molecule surfaces in the phytochemistry of several unrelated-seeming plants; the antiviral isolate, for instance, came from Ligustrum lucidum fruit ^{10Reference 10Ma SC et al. · 2001In vitroIn vitro evaluation of secoiridoid glucosides from the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum as antiviral agentsView study →}.

A practical wrinkle for quantitation: ligstroside is poorly represented in olive leaf and is partly consumed during oil processing as it converts toward oleocanthal, so measured “ligstroside content” is strongly influenced by cultivar, plant part and how the material was handled ^{11Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. Because of that low and processing-dependent abundance, well-anchored dry-weight figures for the intact glucoside are scarce — a hole tracked in this compound’s gaps note rather than asserted here.

Discovery & Synthesis

Ligstroside was characterised as a secoiridoid glucoside of the olive family, and its name derives from the privet genus Ligustrum (hence the widely-used alternate spelling “ligustroside”) — a pre-PubMed identification reported consistently across the modern olive-phenol literature but not independently verified here to an original digitised copy ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. It sits in the literature as the tyrosol counterpart of oleuropein, defined chemically long before its own pharmacology was probed.

Manufacture today is by extraction — from olive fruit, oil and leaf — or, increasingly, by semisynthesis from oleuropein, precisely because ligstroside, its aglycone and oleocanthal are poorly represented in olive leaves and hard to obtain in quantity by extraction or total synthesis. A green, gram-scale chemocatalytic cascade converting oleuropein to ligstroside, ligstroside aglycone and oleocanthal in a single sequence has been reported as a practical supply route for research material ^{13Reference 13Mancuso S et al. · 2021Green Semisynthetic Cascade to Ligstroside, Ligstroside Aglycone, and OleocanthalView study →}. Pure ligstroside remains a limited-availability research chemical, which is itself one reason its isolate pharmacokinetics are so poorly studied.

Patents: not yet researched.

Toxicity & Safety

Ligstroside carries a low toxicity flag. It is a natural secoiridoid of a food humans have eaten for millennia — olives and extra-virgin olive oil — and belongs to the same family (with oleuropein, tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol) that anchors olive oil’s recognised health interest; there is no signal of meaningful toxicity at dietary or supplemental phenolic levels ^{9,11Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}. No dedicated isolate toxicology package (repeat-dose, genotoxicity) is characterised for ligstroside specifically, so the low flag reflects its dietary pedigree and chemical class rather than a purpose-built safety dossier — an honest scope limit, not a claim of proven safety. In the one chronic animal study, mice fed ligstroside at 50 mg/kg of diet for 6 months not only tolerated it but outlived controls ^{6Reference 6Grewal R et al. · 2020Purified oleocanthal and ligstroside protect against mitochondrial dysfunction in models of early Alzheimer’s disease and brain ageingView study →}.

Safety at a Glance

✅ Low / no toxicity

• Dietary olive secoiridoid. A natural constituent of olives and extra-virgin olive oil with a long dietary history and no toxicity signal at food-level intake ^{9,11Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.
• Theoretical additive blood-pressure/anti-inflammatory effects. As an olive secoiridoid and the precursor of oleocanthal, concentrated supplemental intake could in principle add to antihypertensive or antiplatelet effects seen for the olive-phenol family — relevant to anyone on cardiovascular medication (ordinary dietary olive oil is not a concern) ^{7,11Reference 7Filardo S et al. · 2024Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approachesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.
• Isolate ≠ olive oil, and glucoside ≠ aglycone. Human data are for whole olive oil; most isolate data are for the aglycone, not the glucoside — do not read either as evidence for pure ligstroside.
• Poorly characterised. As a low-abundance, poorly-absorbed glucoside with no isolate toxicology package, ligstroside’s behaviour as a purified supplement is not established ^{9,11Reference 9Nikou T et al. · 2022In vitroMetabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human StudiesView study →Reference 11Lozano-Castellón J et al. · 2020Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oilView study →}.

Pregnancy and lactation are per-herb / per-supplement decisions and are not adjudicated on this molecule page; no dedicated human reproductive data exist for isolated ligstroside, and no isolate-specific verdict is issued here.

Dosage

There is no established human dose for isolated ligstroside. It has never been given to people as a defined drug, and pure material is scarce. Real-world exposure is dietary, through the secoiridoid fraction of olives and extra-virgin olive oil — where ligstroside also matters as the reservoir that becomes oleocanthal on crushing. The only quantified doses are from animal research:

These are animal research and dietary-exposure figures, not a personal recommendation. There is no human dosing evidence for ligstroside or its aglycone.

References

1. Hansen K, Adsersen A, Christensen SB, Jensen SR, Nyman U, Smitt UW (1996). Isolation of an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor from Olea europaea and Olea lancea. Phytomedicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23194770/
2. Andrewes P, Busch JL, de Joode T, Groenewegen A, Alexandre H (2003). Sensory properties of virgin olive oil polyphenols: identification of deacetoxy-ligstroside aglycon as a key contributor to pungency. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12590491/
3. Beauchamp GK, Keast RS, Morel D, Lin J, Pika J, Han Q, et al. (2005). Phytochemistry: ibuprofen-like activity in extra-virgin olive oil. Nature. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16136122/
4. Karkoula E, Skantzari A, Melliou E, Magiatis P (2012). Direct measurement of oleocanthal and oleacein levels in olive oil by quantitative ¹H NMR. Establishment of a new index for the characterization of extra virgin olive oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23116297/
5. De Stefanis D, Scimè S, Accomazzo S, Catti A, Occhipinti A, Bertea CM, Costelli P (2019). Anti-Proliferative Effects of an Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Extract Enriched in Ligstroside Aglycone and Oleocanthal on Human Liver Cancer Cell Lines. Cancers (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31653043/
6. Grewal R, Reutzel M, Dilberger B, Hein H, Zotzel J, Marx S, et al. (2020). Purified oleocanthal and ligstroside protect against mitochondrial dysfunction in models of early Alzheimer’s disease and brain ageing. Experimental Neurology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32084452/
7. Filardo S, Roberto M, Di Risola D, Mosca L, Di Pietro M, Sessa R (2024). Olea europaea L-derived secoiridoids: Beneficial health effects and potential therapeutic approaches. Pharmacology & Therapeutics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38301769/
8. Castejón ML, Montoya T, Ortega-Vidal J, Altarejos J, Alarcón-de-la-Lastra C (2022). Ligstroside aglycon, an extra virgin olive oil secoiridoid, prevents inflammation by regulation of MAPKs, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, Nrf2/HO-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages. Food & Function. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36111584/
9. Nikou T, Sakavitsi ME, Kalampokis E, Halabalaki M (2022). Metabolism and Bioavailability of Olive Bioactive Constituents Based on In Vitro, In Vivo and Human Studies. Nutrients. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36145149/
10. Ma SC, He ZD, Deng XL, But PP, Ooi VE, Xu HX, Lee SH, Lee SF (2001). In vitro evaluation of secoiridoid glucosides from the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum as antiviral agents. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11724241/
11. Lozano-Castellón J, López-Yerena A, Rinaldi de Alvarenga JF, Romero Del Castillo-Alba J, Vallverdú-Queralt A, Escribano-Ferrer E, et al. (2020). Health-promoting properties of oleocanthal and oleacein: two secoiridoids from extra-virgin olive oil. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31423808/
12. Mahmud MA, Siddique AB, Tajmim A, King JA, El Sayed KA (2025). The Olive Oil Monophenolic Secoiridoid Ligstroside Aglycone Suppresses Melanoma Progression by Targeting the BRAF Signaling Pathway. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39795195/
13. Mancuso S, Costanzo P, Bonacci S, Nardi M, Oliverio M, Procopio A (2021). Green Semisynthetic Cascade to Ligstroside, Ligstroside Aglycone, and Oleocanthal. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c04030

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