Vanillic Acid

Vanillic Acid at a Glance

Vanillic acid, or 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid, is a simple phenolic acid of the hydroxybenzoic-acid family — the oxidation product of vanillin, sharing vanillin’s aromatic ring but carrying a carboxylic acid where vanillin has an aldehyde. It is widespread and largely dietary: a minor phenolic of vanilla, whole grains, green tea, wine and beer, and hundreds of plants, and one of the phenolic acids in the antioxidant fractions of samambaia and marshmallow ^{1,2,13Reference 1García F et al. · 2006Phenolic components and antioxidant activity of Fernblock, an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of the fern Polypodium leucotomosView study →Reference 2Gombau L et al. · 2006In vitroPolypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and dispositionView study →Reference 13Gudej J · 1991Flavonoids, phenolic acids and coumarins from the roots of Althaea officinalisView study →}.

Its researched pharmacology is real but almost entirely preclinical — antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective and neuroprotective signals from cell and rodent studies of the isolated molecule, running mostly through NF-κB suppression and general radical scavenging ^{3,4,5,7Reference 3Kim MC et al. · 2011AnimalVanillic acid inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing NF-κB in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophagesView study →Reference 4Ullah R et al. · 2020AnimalVanillic acid, a bioactive phenolic compound, counteracts LPS-induced neurotoxicity by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in mouse brainView study →Reference 5Itoh A et al. · 2010Hepatoprotective effect of syringic acid and vanillic acid on CCl₄-induced liver injuryView study →Reference 7Stanely Mainzen Prince P et al. · 2015AnimalVanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted ratsView study →}. There are no controlled human efficacy trials of vanillic acid as an isolate.

Two features make this molecule distinctive on a phytochemistry page. First, it sits in a redox pair with vanillin — the aroma aldehyde on one side, the acid on the other. Second, a large share of human exposure is indirect: vanillic acid is a colonic catabolite of bigger polyphenols such as anthocyanins and ferulic acid, so it appears in the body even from foods that contain little of it directly ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}.

Vanillic Acid vs. Vanillin

Vanillic acid and vanillin are the same aromatic scaffold at two oxidation states, and the two are easy to conflate — but they are different compounds with different roles.

Vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is an aldehyde — the dominant aroma molecule of the cured vanilla pod and the flavour the word “vanilla” refers to. Vanillic acid is its oxidation product: oxidise vanillin’s aldehyde group to a carboxylic acid and you get vanillic acid. In vanilla the acid accumulates as a minor by-product of the same curing chemistry that liberates vanillin, at roughly a tenth of vanillin’s level ^{14Reference 14Pardío VT et al. · 2009Effects of killing conditions of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Andrews) pods during the curing process on aroma composition of pod ethanol extractView study →}.

The practical consequences:

• Flavour vs. the acid — vanillin carries the sweet aromatic flavour; vanillic acid contributes little aroma and is more a phenolic-acid antioxidant than a flavouring.
• Overlapping but distinct pharmacology — both suppress the NF-κB inflammatory axis, and vanillic acid retains that anti-inflammatory activity independently ^{3Reference 3Kim MC et al. · 2011AnimalVanillic acid inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing NF-κB in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophagesView study →}; in classic radical assays the acid and vanillyl alcohol can out-scavenge vanillin, which is inert in DPPH because it scavenges by an unusual self-dimerisation route.
• The redox pair, both ways — vanillin carries the broad antioxidant/anti-inflammatory/neuroprotective and anti-sickling research profile of the aromatic aldehyde; vanillic acid is the stable oxidised twin. See the vanillin page for the aldehyde’s full pharmacology.

A Metabolite of Bigger Polyphenols

A defining fact about vanillic acid is that much of the body’s exposure to it does not come from eating vanillic acid. It is a downstream catabolite produced when the gut microbiota break apart larger dietary polyphenols.

After ingestion of anthocyanins — the red-purple pigments of berries and other fruit — colonic bacteria cleave the sugar and open the flavylium ring, and the B-ring fragments are released and further modified to simple phenolic acids including protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid and p-coumaric acid ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}. Ferulic acid (abundant in cereal cell walls) feeds the same pool. Because parent anthocyanins are themselves poorly absorbed (bioavailability well under ~2%), these microbial phenolic-acid metabolites — excreted in far higher amounts than the parent pigments — are a plausible part of why polyphenol-rich diets show effects ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}.

For a compound page this matters twice over: it means vanillic acid is a systemic human exposure even from foods low in it, and it complicates attribution — an “anthocyanin” or “ferulic acid” health signal may in part be a vanillic-acid signal, and vice versa.

What It's Used For

Beyond its role as a dietary phenolic, vanillic acid’s pharmacology is a preclinical mechanism story — cell and rodent studies of the isolate, most of them turning on NF-κB suppression and antioxidant defence, with no human isolate trials to anchor them.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Support is an experimental score — weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro) and volume. A beta, not a validated metric. Every row here rests on isolate cell/animal work with no human trials, so scores stay modest by design; read the per-row basis.

01Anti-inflammatory (NF-κB)Shaky40%Isolate ↓ NF-κB/caspase-1, TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2 in macrophages ^{3Reference 3Kim MC et al. · 2011AnimalVanillic acid inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing NF-κB in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophagesView study →} + reviews ^{8,12Reference 8Yalameha B et al. · 2023Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acidView study →Reference 12Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M et al. · 2025Vanillic acid as a promising intervention for metabolic syndrome: preclinical studiesView study →}

02Antioxidant (phenolic fraction)Shaky36%In-vitro radical scavenging as an extract constituent + isolate/ester assays ^{1,2,10Reference 1García F et al. · 2006Phenolic components and antioxidant activity of Fernblock, an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of the fern Polypodium leucotomosView study →Reference 2Gombau L et al. · 2006In vitroPolypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and dispositionView study →Reference 10Tai A et al. · 2012Antioxidative properties of vanillic acid esters in multiple antioxidant assaysView study →}

03HepatoprotectiveShaky34%Rodent CCl₄ injury + thioacetamide fibrosis models ^{5,6Reference 5Itoh A et al. · 2010Hepatoprotective effect of syringic acid and vanillic acid on CCl₄-induced liver injuryView study →Reference 6Cen X et al. · 2024AnimalIntegrated microbiome and metabolomic analyses revealed the antifibrotic effect of vanillic acid on thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in miceView study →}

04NeuroprotectiveShaky30%One strong LPS mouse study (RAGE/p-JNK, memory) ^{4Reference 4Ullah R et al. · 2020AnimalVanillic acid, a bioactive phenolic compound, counteracts LPS-induced neurotoxicity by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in mouse brainView study →}

05CardioprotectiveShaky28%Rat myocardial-infarction model + review ^{7,8Reference 7Stanely Mainzen Prince P et al. · 2015AnimalVanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted ratsView study →Reference 8Yalameha B et al. · 2023Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acidView study →}

06AntimicrobialShaky24%Food-matrix activity vs Cronobacter sakazakii ^{9Reference 9Yemiş GP et al. · 2012Thermal tolerance and survival of Cronobacter sakazakii in powdered infant formula supplemented with vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and vanillic acidView study →}

Mechanisms

The load-bearing point is that most effects fold back to one upstream theme — NF-κB suppression plus general antioxidant defence — which is exactly why the organ-protection findings look coherent yet remain low-tier: they share a plausible mechanism but not a single human trial.

Pharmacokinetics

Vanillic acid is a small, moderately lipophilic hydroxybenzoic acid, and it reaches the body by two routes. Directly, it is reasonably absorbable: in a human intestinal-cell model the samambaia phenolic acids including vanillic acid showed ~70–100% apparent permeability, with CYP450-dependent metabolism and partial conjugation to glucuronide and sulfate ^{2Reference 2Gombau L et al. · 2006In vitroPolypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and dispositionView study →}. Indirectly — and quantitatively more important for most diets — it is generated in the colon from larger polyphenols (anthocyanins, ferulic acid) and then absorbed and phase-II-conjugated, so it circulates largely as its glucuronide/sulfate conjugates and is excreted in urine ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}.

Two caveats for the compound page: (1) robust human ADME for the isolate — Cmax, half-life, oral bioavailability of pure vanillic acid — is not well characterised; and (2) the antioxidant/anti-inflammatory potencies reported in vitro often use concentrations above the low micromolar range plausibly reached in plasma from food, which tempers the read-across from dish to person ^{3,10Reference 3Kim MC et al. · 2011AnimalVanillic acid inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing NF-κB in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophagesView study →Reference 10Tai A et al. · 2012Antioxidative properties of vanillic acid esters in multiple antioxidant assaysView study →}.

Clinical Trials

There are no controlled human efficacy trials of isolated vanillic acid. The human “evidence” is dietary-exposure and metabolite pharmacokinetics ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}; everything mechanistic is cell or rodent work.

Last checked: July 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

The evidence splits cleanly and is worth stating plainly. The mechanistic and organ-protection work is the isolated molecule in cells and rodents — the NF-κB macrophage study ^{3Reference 3Kim MC et al. · 2011AnimalVanillic acid inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing NF-κB in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophagesView study →}, the CCl₄ and thioacetamide liver models ^{5,6Reference 5Itoh A et al. · 2010Hepatoprotective effect of syringic acid and vanillic acid on CCl₄-induced liver injuryView study →Reference 6Cen X et al. · 2024AnimalIntegrated microbiome and metabolomic analyses revealed the antifibrotic effect of vanillic acid on thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in miceView study →}, the myocardial-infarction rat study ^{7Reference 7Stanely Mainzen Prince P et al. · 2015AnimalVanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted ratsView study →}, and the LPS neuroinflammation mouse study ^{4Reference 4Ullah R et al. · 2020AnimalVanillic acid, a bioactive phenolic compound, counteracts LPS-induced neurotoxicity by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in mouse brainView study →} all test vanillic acid (or a close ester) directly. As an isolate mechanism base that is a genuine strength; as human evidence it is silent.

In its source plants, by contrast, vanillic acid is almost always one phenolic acid among many in whole-extract assays: in samambaia it is a lesser contributor to an antioxidant fraction led by ferulic and caffeic acids ^{1,2Reference 1García F et al. · 2006Phenolic components and antioxidant activity of Fernblock, an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of the fern Polypodium leucotomosView study →Reference 2Gombau L et al. · 2006In vitroPolypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and dispositionView study →}; in vanilla it is a minor by-product of vanillin curing ^{14Reference 14Pardío VT et al. · 2009Effects of killing conditions of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Andrews) pods during the curing process on aroma composition of pod ethanol extractView study →}; in marshmallow it is one of several leaf/root phenolic acids ^{13Reference 13Gudej J · 1991Flavonoids, phenolic acids and coumarins from the roots of Althaea officinalisView study →}. So the correct framing is: decent isolate mechanism + no isolate human data + a minor-constituent role in every plant it comes from — the plant effects cannot be attributed to vanillic acid alone.

Its Role in Plants

In plants vanillic acid is an intermediate of phenylpropanoid metabolism. The pathway runs from the shikimate-derived amino acid phenylalanine through the general phenylpropanoid route to p-coumaric → ferulic acid, and vanillic acid arises alongside vanillin at the hydroxybenzoic-acid branch — vanillin can be oxidised to vanillic acid, and both connect to the machinery that builds lignin, the structural phenolic polymer of plant cell walls ^{8,12Reference 8Yalameha B et al. · 2023Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acidView study →Reference 12Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M et al. · 2025Vanillic acid as a promising intervention for metabolic syndrome: preclinical studiesView study →}.

Functionally it belongs to the plant’s phenolic defence and structural chemistry rather than to signalling: as a cell-wall-associated phenolic acid it contributes to the antioxidant and antimicrobial phenolic pool that helps plants resist oxidative and microbial stress. In vanilla specifically, the acid is not a product of the living pod at all — like vanillin, it emerges during post-harvest killing and curing, when enzymatic and oxidative reactions transform the pod’s glucosides ^{14Reference 14Pardío VT et al. · 2009Effects of killing conditions of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Andrews) pods during the curing process on aroma composition of pod ethanol extractView study →}.

These are plant-biochemistry roles and should not be read as human pharmacology.

Prevalence in Nature

Vanillic acid is widely distributed but usually present at low levels, chiefly as a free or bound hydroxybenzoic acid in the phenolic fraction of foods and herbs. It occurs in cured vanilla pods (~0.18–0.19% of the dried pod, roughly a tenth of the vanillin content) ^{14Reference 14Pardío VT et al. · 2009Effects of killing conditions of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Andrews) pods during the curing process on aroma composition of pod ethanol extractView study →}; among the phenolic acids of samambaia (Polypodium leucotomos), where it sits with p-coumaric, ferulic, caffeic and chlorogenic acids in the antioxidant/photoprotective fraction ^{1,2Reference 1García F et al. · 2006Phenolic components and antioxidant activity of Fernblock, an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of the fern Polypodium leucotomosView study →Reference 2Gombau L et al. · 2006In vitroPolypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and dispositionView study →}; and among the leaf and root phenolic acids of marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) ^{13Reference 13Gudej J · 1991Flavonoids, phenolic acids and coumarins from the roots of Althaea officinalisView study →}.

Beyond the database herbs it is a recognised constituent of whole grains (wheat, corn and rice cell walls, via the ferulic-acid pool), green tea, and wine and beer, and it is reported across many fruits and medicinal plants ^{8,12Reference 8Yalameha B et al. · 2023Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acidView study →Reference 12Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M et al. · 2025Vanillic acid as a promising intervention for metabolic syndrome: preclinical studiesView study →}. Layered on top of dietary content is its role as a microbial metabolite of anthocyanins and ferulic acid, which broadens real human exposure well beyond the foods that carry the pre-formed acid ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}.

Major Natural Sources

Source	Plant part	Reported vanillic-acid content
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)	cured pod	~0.18–0.19% dry weight 14Reference 14Pardío VT et al. · 2009Effects of killing conditions of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Andrews) pods during the curing process on aroma composition of pod ethanol extractView study →
Samambaia (Polypodium leucotomos)	aerial parts (aqueous extract)	present in the phenolic fraction; not individually quantified 1,2Reference 1García F et al. · 2006Phenolic components and antioxidant activity of Fernblock, an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of the fern Polypodium leucotomosView study →Reference 2Gombau L et al. · 2006In vitroPolypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and dispositionView study →
Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis)	leaf / root	present among the phenolic acids; not individually quantified 13Reference 13Gudej J · 1991Flavonoids, phenolic acids and coumarins from the roots of Althaea officinalisView study →
Whole grains, green tea, wine, beer	—	reported constituent; levels vary 8,12Reference 8Yalameha B et al. · 2023Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acidView study →Reference 12Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M et al. · 2025Vanillic acid as a promising intervention for metabolic syndrome: preclinical studiesView study →

Only the vanilla figure is quantified in the sources reviewed here; the remaining occurrences are qualitative, and the missing numbers are tracked for a later pass.

Discovery & Synthesis

Vanillic acid entered chemistry as a derivative of vanillin. Vanillin itself was isolated from vanilla and structurally characterised in the mid-nineteenth century (Gobley, 1858), and vanillic acid — its straightforward oxidation product — has been known since that era of vanilla chemistry; a precise “first isolation” date for the acid is not well documented, as it emerged from work on vanillin rather than as a headline discovery of its own.

Manufacture and biotechnology. Vanillic acid can be made by simple oxidation of vanillin, and it sits on the industrial ferulic-acid → vanillic acid → vanillin bioconversion route that microbes and engineered strains use to produce natural vanillin — so vanillic acid is both a precursor and an oxidation product of vanillin depending on the direction of the reaction. As a research and flavour-adjacent chemical it is available synthetically; there is no meaningful plant-extraction industry for the isolated acid.

Patents: not yet researched.

Toxicity & Safety

Vanillic acid carries a low flag. It is an ordinary dietary phenolic acid, present as a natural constituent of vanilla flavouring and of common foods (whole grains, green tea, wine), consumed at low levels for as long as those foods have been eaten, and also produced endogenously in the gut from larger polyphenols ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}. Preclinical studies use it as a protective agent — against liver, heart and brain injury — rather than reporting toxicity ^{4,5,7Reference 4Ullah R et al. · 2020AnimalVanillic acid, a bioactive phenolic compound, counteracts LPS-induced neurotoxicity by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in mouse brainView study →Reference 5Itoh A et al. · 2010Hepatoprotective effect of syringic acid and vanillic acid on CCl₄-induced liver injuryView study →Reference 7Stanely Mainzen Prince P et al. · 2015AnimalVanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted ratsView study →}, and reviews classify it among safe, food-derived nutraceutical phenolics ^{8,12Reference 8Yalameha B et al. · 2023Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acidView study →Reference 12Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M et al. · 2025Vanillic acid as a promising intervention for metabolic syndrome: preclinical studiesView study →}.

The honest limits are the usual ones for a molecule with no human trials: the safety data are preclinical, dedicated repeat-dose and genotoxicity packages for the pure isolate are not characterised here, and there are no human drug-interaction studies — though its NF-κB-suppressing, antioxidant activity is a theoretical, unquantified consideration alongside immunomodulatory or anticoagulant regimens at medicinal (not dietary) quantities.

Safety at a Glance

✅ Low / no toxicity

• An ordinary dietary phenolic acid. A natural constituent of vanilla, whole grains, green tea and wine, eaten at low levels and also made in the gut from larger polyphenols ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}.
• Preclinical studies use it as a protectant. Hepato-, cardio- and neuroprotective effects, not toxicity, in the rodent literature ^{4,5,7Reference 4Ullah R et al. · 2020AnimalVanillic acid, a bioactive phenolic compound, counteracts LPS-induced neurotoxicity by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in mouse brainView study →Reference 5Itoh A et al. · 2010Hepatoprotective effect of syringic acid and vanillic acid on CCl₄-induced liver injuryView study →Reference 7Stanely Mainzen Prince P et al. · 2015AnimalVanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted ratsView study →}.
• Safety rests on preclinical and dietary data. No human trials, and no characterised repeat-dose/genotoxicity package for the pure isolate.
• Interactions not studied. Theoretical, unquantified additive effect with immunomodulatory or anticoagulant regimens at medicinal quantities; not a concern at food levels.

Dosage

There is no established or recommended human dose for isolated vanillic acid. Efficacy figures in the literature are preclinical rodent research doses — the cardioprotective work used 5–10 mg/kg in rats ^{7Reference 7Stanely Mainzen Prince P et al. · 2015AnimalVanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted ratsView study →}, and other rodent studies use comparable tens-of-mg/kg ranges — and these are not convertible to human self-dosing.

Human exposure is dietary and indirect, not by supplementation:

• As a minor food phenolic — vanilla, whole grains, green tea, wine and beer.
• As a colonic metabolite of anthocyanins and ferulic acid, so intake of berry- and cereal-rich diets raises systemic vanillic acid without any vanillic-acid supplement ^{11Reference 11de Ferrars RM et al. · 2014The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humansView study →}.

These are doses studied in research and dietary-exposure figures, not a personal recommendation.

References

1. García F, et al. (2006). Phenolic components and antioxidant activity of Fernblock, an aqueous extract of the aerial parts of the fern Polypodium leucotomos. Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16810341/
2. Gombau L, et al. (2006). Polypodium leucotomos extract: antioxidant activity and disposition. Toxicology in Vitro. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263237/
3. Kim MC, et al. (2011). Vanillic acid inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing NF-κB in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21250779/
4. Ullah R, et al. (2020). Vanillic acid, a bioactive phenolic compound, counteracts LPS-induced neurotoxicity by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in mouse brain. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33396372/
5. Itoh A, et al. (2010). Hepatoprotective effect of syringic acid and vanillic acid on CCl₄-induced liver injury. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20522963/
6. Cen X, et al. (2024). Integrated microbiome and metabolomic analyses revealed the antifibrotic effect of vanillic acid on thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in mice. Food & Function. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39545308/
7. Stanely Mainzen Prince P, Dhanasekar K, Rajakumar S (2015). Vanillic acid prevents altered ion pumps, ions, inhibits Fas-receptor and caspase mediated apoptosis-signaling pathway and cardiomyocyte death in myocardial infarcted rats. Chemico-Biological Interactions. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25794854/
8. Yalameha B, Nejabati HR, Nouri M (2023). Cardioprotective potential of vanillic acid. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36370144/
9. Yemiş GP, et al. (2012). Thermal tolerance and survival of Cronobacter sakazakii in powdered infant formula supplemented with vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and vanillic acid. Journal of Food Science. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22900597/
10. Tai A, Sawano T, Ito H (2012). Antioxidative properties of vanillic acid esters in multiple antioxidant assays. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22313772/
11. de Ferrars RM, et al. (2014). The pharmacokinetics of anthocyanins and their metabolites in humans. British Journal of Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24602005/
12. Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M, Ferns GA, Ghayour Mobarhan M (2025). Vanillic acid as a promising intervention for metabolic syndrome: preclinical studies. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39850111/
13. Gudej J (1991). Flavonoids, phenolic acids and coumarins from the roots of Althaea officinalis. Planta Medica. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17226162/
14. Pardío VT, et al. (2009). Effects of killing conditions of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Andrews) pods during the curing process on aroma composition of pod ethanol extract. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2009.01944.x

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