Bulbous Canary Grass ☠️ (Phalaris aquatica)

What Is Bulbous Canary Grass?

Bulbous canary grass is a tall perennial grass from the Mediterranean, sown as pasture for grazing animals. It is also called Harding grass, and it is widely grown in Australia and California ^{3,4,5Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}.

Its leaves carry tryptamine alkaloids, including N,N-DMT and 5-MeO-DMT, which has drawn interest in it as a DMT source ^{1,4Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. The same alkaloids poison grazing sheep and cattle ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Identification & Lookalikes

This is a sown pasture grass, so poisoning rarely comes from a foraging mistake. Livestock eat it because it was planted for them, and people meet it when looking for a DMT source.

Confused with	How it differs
Other pasture and forage grasses	Grazing animals do not tell it apart; it is sown as fodder and eaten as fodder ^{4,5Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}
Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) and other Phalaris	Close relatives in the same genus
”A reliable DMT plant”	Its alkaloid content varies widely between strains and with growing conditions, and the plant also carries gramine ^{1,4Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}

Field marks. The stems are often swollen into a bulb at the base, which gives the grass its name ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}. The flower head is a dense, cylindrical spike 1.5–11 cm long ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

Botany

Bulbous canary grass (Phalaris aquatica) is a tufted perennial of the grass family, Poaceae ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}. It is a tall, robust bunchgrass with short rhizomes ^{5Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}.

Its stems grow 50–150 cm tall and are often thickened into a bulb at the base ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}. The leaf blades are 3–8 mm wide ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

The flower head is a dense, spike-like, cylindrical panicle 1.5–11 cm long, sometimes lobed at the base ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}. The glumes are 5–7 mm long, with a broad wing along the keel ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

It grows through the cool, wet months, starting with the first autumn rains, and grows well through cold winters ^{5Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}. In Australia, cultivars were bred for more winter growth and for summer dormancy ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Distribution

Bulbous canary grass is native to the Mediterranean region: southern Europe, North Africa and south-west Asia ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}. It has been widely introduced as a pasture and forage grass ^{3Reference 3Wu Z-LPhalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

In Australia it was first recorded in 1877, and the first Australian cultivar was developed at Toowoomba in 1883 ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. It is now an important pasture species there ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

In California it was brought in for pasture and erosion control ^{5Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}. It has spread into coastal valley and foothill grasslands from Oregon to the Mexican border, and into the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys below 1,200 m ^{6Reference 6California Invasive Plant Council (n.d.)Phalaris aquatica (Harding grass) — invasive plant profileView study →}.

There it grows along roadsides that are seldom mowed, and it can crowd out native plants in wild grassland ^{6Reference 6California Invasive Plant Council (n.d.)Phalaris aquatica (Harding grass) — invasive plant profileView study →}. The California Invasive Plant Council rates it as a moderate invasive ^{6Reference 6California Invasive Plant Council (n.d.)Phalaris aquatica (Harding grass) — invasive plant profileView study →}.

Phytochemistry

The main alkaloids are the tryptamines N,N-DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin (5-hydroxy-DMT), which were first described in the plant in 1964 ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. Gramine, an indole alkaloid, and hordenine, a tyramine-type alkaloid, also occur ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Dried plant material contains roughly 0.1% DMT, 0.022% 5-MeO-DMT and 0.005% bufotenin ^{1Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →}. An Italian cultivar, AQ-1, was reported to contain over 1.0% alkaloids ^{1Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →}.

Alkaloid levels are highest in plants under the most moisture stress, and they also rise after frost, with shading and in drought ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. They peak in autumn, when new growth follows summer dormancy ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Some Australian cultivars were bred for low alkaloid content. ‘Holdfast’ is low in DMT but very high in tyramine-type alkaloids, and it has been linked to a poisoning outbreak ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Constituent Summary

Figures are for dried plant material and vary widely between strains and seasons.

Grouped by class · 5 compounds

Indole Alkaloids4 compounds4 with data

Indole AlkaloidsN,N-DMT~0.10% ^{1Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →}

Indole Alkaloids5-MeO-DMT~0.022% ^{1Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →}

Indole AlkaloidsBufotenin~0.005% ^{1Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →}

Indole AlkaloidsGramineNot quantified

Amines1 compound1 with data

AminesHordenineNot quantified

Toxicology

Class of poison. Tryptamine and other indole alkaloids, with gramine.

Mechanism. DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin injected into sheep produced signs like acute phalaris staggers, and 5-MeO-DMT produced the most severe effects ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. Gramine, hordenine and 5-MeO-DMT have been implicated in phalaris sudden death ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin act strongly on serotonin receptors, both in the brain and in the gut ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. Gramine is not removed by simple extraction, which makes home preparations dangerous as well as unpredictable.

Phalaris staggers. This is a nervous disease of grazing sheep and cattle ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Acute staggers comes on over 6 hours to 21 days. Signs include over-excitement, muscle tremors, head nodding and a stiff gait ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. The signs can clear once the animals are moved off the pasture, but recovery can take many months ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.
Chronic staggers develops over at least three to four months. It damages the nervous system permanently and is usually fatal ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Phalaris sudden death. This usually happens within 48 hours of animals entering a phalaris pasture, and takes two forms ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

A cardiac form, in which the heart and breathing stop, often within hours ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.
A neurological form, resembling polioencephalomalacia, which appears 12 to 48 hours after hungry sheep reach the pasture. Signs include blindness, wandering, head pressing and tremors ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. In cattle, deaths from this form have continued for up to four days after the animals were moved off the pasture ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Prevention in livestock. Cobalt supplementation appears to prevent chronic staggers, but it has limited or no effect on the acute forms ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. Sowing low-alkaloid cultivars is the other main measure ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Human use. There is no established human dose or human treatment protocol.

Traditional & Historical Use

Agricultural History

Harding grass was selected and sown as a pasture grass because it stays green longer than annual grasses ^{5Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}. When fertilised, it adds two months or more of green feed in winter compared with unfertilised native grasses, and about a month in spring ^{5Reference 5USDA NRCS California State Office et al.Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica LView study →}.

In Australia, cultivars such as ‘Australian’, ‘Seedmaster’, ‘Sirocco’ and ‘Holdfast’ were developed for pasture ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. Poisoning of grazing stock led breeders to develop lower-alkaloid cultivars, though poisonings have still occurred on some of them ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Safety & Pregnancy

Bulbous canary grass is not safe to eat or drink. Its alkaloid content is toxic and cannot be known in advance.

Safety at a Glance

ToxicOverdose riskPsychoactive

Not safe to ingest. The alkaloid mix varies too much between plants to allow any dose ^{1,4Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.
Contains gramine alongside its tryptamines ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.
Poisons livestock. It causes phalaris staggers and sudden death in sheep and cattle ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.
Alkaloids rise with drought, frost and autumn regrowth ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Full Safety Detail

Unpredictable chemistry. Alkaloid content differs between cultivars and rises with moisture stress, frost, shading and drought ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}. One Italian cultivar was reported at over 1% alkaloids ^{1Reference 1DMT-Nexus WikiPhalaris aquaticaView study →}.

Gramine. The grass carries gramine alongside the tryptamines, and gramine has been implicated in livestock deaths ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Livestock. Phalaris staggers can be permanent, and sudden death can follow within hours of animals entering a pasture ^{4Reference 4Alden R et al. · 2014ReviewPhalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — reviewView study →}.

Pregnancy & Lactation

Avoid in pregnancy Avoid while breastfeeding

Avoid. There is no pregnancy or breastfeeding data, and the alkaloid content is toxic and unpredictable.

References

DMT-Nexus Wiki. Phalaris aquatica. https://wiki.dmt-nexus.me/Phalaris_aquatica
Mulvena DP, Slaytor M. N-methyltransferase activities in Phalaris aquatica. Phytochemistry. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031942200800552
Wu Z-L, Phillips SM (n.d.). Phalaris aquatica Linnaeus — species description — flora. In Flora of China, Vol. 22 (Poaceae). eFloras. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=250034249
Alden R, Hackney B, Weston LA, Quinn JC (2014). Phalaris toxicoses in Australian livestock production systems: prevalence, aetiology and toxicology — review. J Toxins 1(1):7. https://www.avensonline.org/fulltextarticles/JTOX-2328-1723-01-0003.html
USDA NRCS California State Office and Lockeford Plant Materials Center (n.d.). Koleagrass, Phalaris aquatica L. — plant guide. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_phaq.pdf
California Invasive Plant Council (n.d.). Phalaris aquatica (Harding grass) — invasive plant profile. https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/phalaris-aquatica-profile/