Magic Mushrooms

What Are Magic Mushrooms?

Magic mushrooms are fungi that contain psilocybin, a naturally occurring psychedelic compound. The species most often meant is Psilocybe cubensis, the most widely cultivated, which is sold in many named strains such as Golden Teacher, B+ and Penis Envy ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

P. cubensis grows on the dung of cattle and horses in humid regions on several continents ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms have a long ceremonial history in Mexico, where they are known as teonanácatl ^{29Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →}.

In the body psilocybin is converted to psilocin, which acts on serotonin receptors and produces changes in perception, mood and thought. Clinical trials of purified psilocybin, given with psychological support, have studied depression, distress in people with cancer and alcohol use disorder ^{1,8,11Reference 1Goodwin et al. · 2022RCTSingle-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression — randomised controlled trial (phase 2)View study →Reference 8Ross et al. · 2016RCTRapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised controlled trialView study →Reference 11Bogenschutz et al. · 2022RCTPercentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in Alcohol Use Disorder — randomised controlled trialView study →}.

The effects are strongly shaped by the dose, the setting and the person’s state of mind. The main risks are psychological rather than physical.

How Are Magic Mushrooms Used?

The fruiting body is eaten fresh or dried. In Mexico the mushrooms are taken in religious ceremonies ^{29,30Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →Reference 30Zeiss et al. · 2021ReviewRediscovering psilocybin as an antidepressive treatment strategy — reviewView study →}. In modern clinical research, purified synthetic psilocybin is given in a supervised session with psychological support before, during and after ^{1,2Reference 1Goodwin et al. · 2022RCTSingle-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression — randomised controlled trial (phase 2)View study →Reference 2Carhart-Harris et al. · 2021RCTTrial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression — randomised controlled trialView study →}.

• Ceremonial use — fresh or dried mushrooms eaten in a guided ceremony.
• Clinical trials — synthetic psilocybin, usually 25 mg, with trained support.
• Personal use — dried mushrooms, typically 1.5–3.5 g for a full experience.
• Microdosing — repeated small doses of about 0.1–0.4 g, below the level that produces perceptual effects.

Potency varies between species, strains, individual mushrooms and parts of the same mushroom ^{25,27Reference 25Gotvaldová et al. · 2021Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensisView study →Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

Traditional Uses

Mesoamerican Ceremonial Practice

Aztec, Zapotec and Mixtec peoples used psilocybin mushrooms in religious ceremonies. They called them teonanácatl, “flesh of the gods”, and took them to communicate with deities and ancestors. Carved “mushroom stones” and other artefacts suggest the practice goes back at least 3,500 years ^{29Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →}.

Spanish clerics of the sixteenth century, including Bernardino de Sahagún, condemned the practice as idolatry, but use continued. Francisco Hernández recorded it in the seventeenth century ^{29Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →}.

Among the Mazatec of Oaxaca the mushrooms are taken in a ritual called the velada ^{30Reference 30Zeiss et al. · 2021ReviewRediscovering psilocybin as an antidepressive treatment strategy — reviewView study →}. In the 1950s R. Gordon Wasson documented ceremonies with the Mazatec shaman María Sabina. His 1957 article in Life magazine brought the mushrooms to wide attention in the West ^{29Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →}.

In 1958 the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated psilocybin and psilocin from Psilocybe mexicana ^{29Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →}.

Indications

• Treatment-resistant depression [synthetic psilocybin; with psychological support]
• Major depression [synthetic psilocybin; with psychological support]
• Anxiety and depression in life-threatening cancer [synthetic psilocybin; with psychological support]
• Alcohol use disorder [synthetic psilocybin; with psychotherapy]
• Smoking cessation [synthetic psilocybin; with cognitive-behavioural therapy] ⚠Caution: The one study was an uncontrolled pilot of 15 people ¹³.
• Cluster headache [synthetic psilocybin; mushrooms in self-treatment] ⚠Caution: A small placebo-controlled trial did not reach significance on its main measure ¹⁴.
• Mood and focus [microdosing] ⚠Caution: In the largest placebo-controlled study, people taking placebo improved as much as those microdosing ¹⁶.
• Religious and spiritual ceremony [fruiting body; Mesoamerican ceremonial use]

Mycology

Psilocybe cubensis is a gilled mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae ^{28Reference 28Feng et al. · 2025Three new fungi from China: a potentially psychoactive Psilocybe and two Deconica species — mycological taxonomyView study →}. It was first documented in 1906 in Cuba, which gave the species its name ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

Its cap is 16–80 mm across. It starts conical to bell-shaped and flattens with age, and its colour changes from white to ochre-brown ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}. The gills are pale grey at first and darken to sepia. The stem is 20–80 mm tall, hollow and yellowish ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

Like other Psilocybe species, it bruises blue when damaged. The colour comes from the oxidation of psilocybin, and it is the main feature used to recognise the genus ^{28Reference 28Feng et al. · 2025Three new fungi from China: a potentially psychoactive Psilocybe and two Deconica species — mycological taxonomyView study →}. Its spores are smooth and elliptical, with a germ pore ^{27,28Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →Reference 28Feng et al. · 2025Three new fungi from China: a potentially psychoactive Psilocybe and two Deconica species — mycological taxonomyView study →}.

P. cubensis is a dung-loving (coprophilous) species that feeds on the dung of herbivores such as cows and horses ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}. Other Psilocybe species grow on decaying wood, leaf litter or dung ^{28Reference 28Feng et al. · 2025Three new fungi from China: a potentially psychoactive Psilocybe and two Deconica species — mycological taxonomyView study →}. The mushroom is the fruiting body of a mycelium that lives in the substrate.

Related Psilocybe Species

Psilocybe cubensis is the most widely cultivated species, but many other psilocybin-containing mushrooms exist.

• Psilocybe semilanceata — “liberty caps,” common in grassland habitats
• Psilocybe cyanescens — “wavy caps,” often associated with wood-chip habitats
• Psilocybe azurescens — a species from the Pacific Northwest
• Psilocybe mexicana — the species from which psilocybin was first isolated ^{29Reference 29Skalski et al. · 2026Clinical trialPsilocybin in neuropsychiatric disorders: seeking valuable evidence in history, pure science, clinical trials and real-world data (RWD) — reviewView study →}
• Psilocybe baeocystis — known for higher levels of minor alkaloids

Not every psychoactive mushroom is a psilocybin mushroom. Amanita muscaria acts through different compounds and has a different pharmacology and risk profile.

Distribution

Psilocybe cubensis grows on several continents, on the dung of grazing animals. It prefers humid conditions and does especially well in subtropical river valleys ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

Herbarium records come mostly from Mexico, the Gulf Coast of the United States (especially Florida and Texas), Brazil, Central America, the Caribbean and Australia. There are smaller numbers of records from India, Thailand and East Africa ^{31Reference 31GBIF Secretariat · 2026Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer — preserved-specimen occurrence records by country and stateView study →}.

The genus Psilocybe as a whole is found across tropical, subtropical and temperate regions worldwide ^{28Reference 28Feng et al. · 2025Three new fungi from China: a potentially psychoactive Psilocybe and two Deconica species — mycological taxonomyView study →}.

Cultivation

Cultivation snapshot for Magic Mushrooms

Fruitinghigh humidity, fresh air and misting

Legal statuspsilocybin has been a Schedule I substance under the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances since 1971 ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}. Cultivation is illegal in most countries, so check local law before anything else.

Methodgrain spawn is grown out on a bulk substrate of dung, straw or coir.

Easeeasy to grow indoors, which is why it is the most widely cultivated psilocybin mushroom ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}. Hobbyist methods include PF-Tek jars and the monotub.

Grow it yourself

Farm Wiki is our cultivation-focused sister site, also run by Justin Cooke.

How to growComing soon

Find seedsComing soon

Pharmacology & Research

Psilocybin has been tested in many human clinical trials, mostly phase 2. Nearly all of them used purified synthetic psilocybin at a weighed dose, given with screening, preparation and psychological support.

The strongest evidence is for depression, including treatment-resistant depression, and for anxiety and depression in people with life-threatening cancer. In these trials one or two supervised doses produced rapid improvement that lasted for weeks to months ^{1,2,3,8,9Reference 1Goodwin et al. · 2022RCTSingle-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression — randomised controlled trial (phase 2)View study →Reference 2Carhart-Harris et al. · 2021RCTTrial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression — randomised controlled trialView study →Reference 3Raison et al. · 2023RCTSingle-Dose Psilocybin Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder — randomised controlled trialView study →Reference 8Ross et al. · 2016RCTRapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised controlled trialView study →Reference 9Griffiths et al. · 2016RCTPsilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised, double-blind trialView study →}.

Alcohol use disorder has one positive randomised trial ^{11Reference 11Bogenschutz et al. · 2022RCTPercentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in Alcohol Use Disorder — randomised controlled trialView study →}. Smoking cessation has one uncontrolled pilot study ^{13Reference 13Johnson et al. · 2014Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addictionView study →}. A trial in cluster headache and the largest study of microdosing were both negative on their main measures ^{14,16Reference 14Schindler et al. · 2022RCTExploratory investigation of a patient-informed low-dose psilocybin pulse regimen in cluster headache — randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialView study →Reference 16Szigeti et al. · 2021RCTSelf-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing — placebo-controlled study. eLife. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33648632/View study →}.

Roughly 96 trials have been completed, about 170 are ongoing or planned, and 26 were halted. No phase-3 efficacy result has yet been published.

1. Depression

In the largest trial, a phase-2 double-blind study of 233 people with treatment-resistant depression, a single 25 mg dose with psychological support lowered MADRS depression scores by 12.0 points at week 3, against 5.4 points for a 1 mg control dose. A 10 mg dose did not differ significantly from 1 mg ^{1Reference 1Goodwin et al. · 2022RCTSingle-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression — randomised controlled trial (phase 2)View study →}.

A double-blind trial in 59 people with major depression compared two 25 mg doses of psilocybin with six weeks of daily escitalopram. The difference on the main self-rated measure was not significant. Most secondary measures favoured psilocybin, but these were not corrected for multiple comparisons ^{2Reference 2Carhart-Harris et al. · 2021RCTTrial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression — randomised controlled trialView study →}. At six months both groups had improved to a similar degree, with psilocybin ahead on measures of functioning and meaning in life ^{7Reference 7Erritzoe et al. · 2024RCTEffect of psilocybin versus escitalopram on depression symptom severity: observational 6-month follow-up of a phase 2 randomised controlled trialView study →}.

In a US trial of 104 people, a single 25 mg dose lowered MADRS scores by 12.3 points more than niacin, an active placebo, at day 43 ^{3Reference 3Raison et al. · 2023RCTSingle-Dose Psilocybin Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder — randomised controlled trialView study →}. In a waiting-list-controlled trial of 27 people, two doses produced large, rapid drops in depression that held through the four-week follow-up ^{4Reference 4Davis et al. · 2021RCTEffects of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy on Major Depressive Disorder — randomised controlled trialView study →}. In a Swiss trial of 52 people, a single dose of 0.215 mg/kg lowered MADRS scores by 13.0 points from baseline at two weeks, significantly more than placebo ^{5Reference 5von Rotz et al. · 2023RCTSingle-dose psilocybin-assisted therapy in major depressive disorder — placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomised controlled trialView study →}.

An earlier open-label study of 12 people with treatment-resistant depression, with no control group, first reported the effect ^{6Reference 6Carhart-Harris et al. · 2016Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility studyView study →}.

A network meta-analysis found that high-dose psilocybin outperformed escitalopram. Its effect size fell from large to small once it was compared against the placebo response seen in antidepressant trials, which the authors linked to unsuccessful blinding ^{24Reference 24Hsu et al. · 2024Meta-analysisComparative oral monotherapy of psilocybin, LSD, MDMA, ayahuasca, and escitalopram for depressive symptoms — systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysisView study →}.

Gap: every trial is phase 2 with a modest sample; participants can usually tell whether they received an active dose, which inflates apparent effects, and no phase-3 efficacy readout has been published.

2. Cancer & End-Of-Life Distress

Three randomised trials address anxiety and depression in people with life-threatening cancer. In a double-blind crossover trial of 29 patients, a single 0.3 mg/kg dose with psychotherapy, compared with niacin, produced immediate and substantial falls in anxiety and depression. At 6.5 months about 60–80% of participants still showed clinically significant improvement ^{8Reference 8Ross et al. · 2016RCTRapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised controlled trialView study →}.

A double-blind crossover trial in 51 patients compared a high dose (22 or 30 mg/70 kg) with a very low dose (1 or 3 mg/70 kg). The high dose produced large falls in depression and anxiety, and about 80% of participants still showed clinically significant improvement at six months ^{9Reference 9Griffiths et al. · 2016RCTPsilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised, double-blind trialView study →}.

An earlier pilot study in 12 patients, using 0.2 mg/kg, found it safe and reported lower anxiety at one and three months and better mood at six months ^{10Reference 10Grob et al. · 2011RCTPilot study of psilocybin treatment for anxiety in patients with advanced-stage cancer — randomised controlled trialView study →}.

Gap: fewer than a hundred patients have been randomised across the three trials, samples were motivated and self-selected, and expectancy is hard to exclude when the effects are unmistakable.

3. Alcohol Use Disorder

A double-blind trial randomised 95 adults with alcohol dependence to two sessions of psilocybin or the active placebo diphenhydramine, alongside 12 weeks of psychotherapy. Over 32 weeks, heavy-drinking days made up 9.7% of days in the psilocybin group and 23.6% in the placebo group ^{11Reference 11Bogenschutz et al. · 2022RCTPercentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in Alcohol Use Disorder — randomised controlled trialView study →}.

It built on an open-label study of 10 people in which abstinence rose significantly after the psilocybin sessions ^{12Reference 12Bogenschutz et al. · 2015Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: a proof-of-concept studyView study →}.

The active placebo made the effects harder to guess than in most psychedelic trials.

Gap: one adequately powered trial plus its uncontrolled predecessor, from overlapping investigators. Independent replication and longer-term drinking outcomes are not yet available.

4. Smoking Cessation

An open-label pilot study gave 15 long-term smokers two or three psilocybin sessions within a 15-week cognitive-behavioural programme. At six months, 12 of the 15 (80%) were abstinent, confirmed by biological tests ^{13Reference 13Johnson et al. · 2014Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addictionView study →}. There was no comparison group.

Gap: no placebo or active control and a very small sample. The abstinence figure cannot be separated from the intensive behavioural support and self-selection until controlled trials report.

5. Cluster Headache

An exploratory double-blind trial (14 participants analysed) compared a pulse of three low doses (0.143 mg/kg, about five days apart) with a cellulose placebo. Attack frequency fell by 3.2 attacks a week with psilocybin and was unchanged with placebo (+0.03), a difference that was not significant (p = 0.25) ^{14Reference 14Schindler et al. · 2022RCTExploratory investigation of a patient-informed low-dose psilocybin pulse regimen in cluster headache — randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialView study →}. The effect was larger in people with chronic cluster headache and lasted across the eight weeks measured ^{14Reference 14Schindler et al. · 2022RCTExploratory investigation of a patient-informed low-dose psilocybin pulse regimen in cluster headache — randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trialView study →}.

The trial followed a survey of 496 people with cluster headache, many of whom rated psilocybin mushrooms as effective when used for self-treatment ^{15Reference 15Schindler et al. · 2015ObservationalIndoleamine Hallucinogens in Cluster Headache: Results of the Clusterbusters Medication Use Survey — observational surveyView study →}.

Gap: a single small exploratory trial that missed its primary endpoint, supported by survey data. Benefit for cluster headache is not established.

6. Microdosing

Microdosing means taking repeated small doses, below the level that alters perception, for mood, focus or creativity. The largest placebo-controlled study (191 participants, using a self-blinding design) found that microdosers improved on psychological measures, but so did the placebo group, with no significant difference between them. The small acute effects that did appear could be explained by participants guessing which they had taken ^{16Reference 16Szigeti et al. · 2021RCTSelf-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing — placebo-controlled study. eLife. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33648632/View study →}. Earlier positive reports come from uncontrolled self-report studies ^{17Reference 17Fadiman et al. · 2019ObservationalMight Microdosing Psychedelics Be Safe and Beneficial? An Initial Exploration — observational surveyView study →}.

Gap: the best controlled data are null, and no rigorous trial has shown a specific benefit from microdosing.

Mechanisms

Psilocybin is a prodrug. After it is swallowed it is dephosphorylated to psilocin, which acts mainly as an agonist at the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. This receptor activity produces the acute changes in perception, mood and thought.

Imaging in patients with depression the day after treatment found lower blood flow in the amygdala and increased connectivity within the default mode network, a brain network involved in self-focused thought. These changes tracked clinical response ^{19Reference 19Carhart-Harris et al. · 2017Psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression: fMRI-measured brain mechanismsView study →}. In a survey of people who had used psychedelics, greater psychological flexibility accounted for the link between the acute experience and later falls in depression and anxiety ^{18Reference 18Davis et al. · 2020Psychological flexibility mediates the relations between acute psychedelic effects and subjective decreases in depression and anxietyView study →}.

Clinical Trials

Psilocybin has more than 300 registered studies, covering depression, cancer-related distress, addiction and headache. Most completed trials are phase 2.

Last checked: August 2026.

Phytochemistry

The activity of Psilocybe cubensis comes from a small group of tryptamine alkaloids structurally similar to serotonin ^{25Reference 25Gotvaldová et al. · 2021Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensisView study →}.

The main compound is psilocybin, a phosphorylated tryptamine that the body converts into psilocin, the active form. Published analyses of P. cubensis fruiting bodies report psilocybin contents from under 1 mg/g to about 20 mg/g of dry weight, roughly 0.05% to 2% ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

The minor alkaloids baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin occur in smaller amounts ^{25Reference 25Gotvaldová et al. · 2021Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensisView study →}. In mice, baeocystin given alone did not produce the head-twitch response used as a marker of psychedelic activity, although its breakdown product norpsilocin is a potent 5-HT2A agonist ^{26Reference 26Sherwood et al. · 2020In vitroSynthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin — in vitroView study →}.

In one analysis, caps held about twice the alkaloid content of stems (1.03% against 0.52%), but the difference was not statistically significant because individual mushrooms varied so much. The spores contained no tryptamines, and the mycelium contained only psilocin ^{25Reference 25Gotvaldová et al. · 2021Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensisView study →}. Dried mushrooms stored in the dark at room temperature kept their alkaloids best ^{25Reference 25Gotvaldová et al. · 2021Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensisView study →}.

Constituent Summary

Dosage

The ranges below are for dried Psilocybe cubensis. Potency varies between strains and individual mushrooms, so a dose should be weighed rather than counted ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}. Fresh mushrooms are mostly water, so a fresh dose is about ten times the dried weight. Tolerance builds almost immediately, so full doses are usually spaced one to two weeks apart.

• Microdose (0.1–0.4 g): below the level of noticeable effects, taken for mood, focus or creativity.
• Threshold (0.5–1 g): light changes in perception and mood.
• Standard dose (1.5–3.5 g): the full psychedelic experience, the range used in most ceremonial and personal contexts.
• Heroic dose (5 g+): intense and unpredictable; for experienced users only, with a sober sitter present.

In a clinical study using 10 mg and 25 mg of synthetic psilocybin, effects appeared 30–60 minutes after dosing, peaked at 2–3 hours and faded by about 6 hours ^{6Reference 6Carhart-Harris et al. · 2016Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility studyView study →}.

Doses Used in the Research

Every dose below is purified synthetic psilocybin, weighed to the milligram and given once or twice under supervision with psychological support. The dried-weight equivalents assume about 1% psilocybin by dry weight. Published analyses of P. cubensis range from about 0.05% to 2%, so these equivalents are a rough guide only ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

Safety & Pregnancy

Psilocybin has low physical toxicity at the doses studied ^{20,22Reference 20Hasler et al. · 2004RCTAcute psychological and physiological effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-effect study — randomised controlled trialView study →Reference 22Yerubandi et al. · 2024Meta-analysisAcute Adverse Effects of Therapeutic Doses of Psilocybin — systematic review and meta-analysisView study →}. Its main risks are psychological: fear, panic and confusion during the experience, and, rarely, psychosis in vulnerable people ^{23Reference 23Sabé et al. · 2025Meta-analysisReconsidering evidence for psychedelic-induced psychosis — systematic review and meta-analysisView study →}. It is controlled in most countries ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

Full Safety & Interactions Detail

Physical effects. In a controlled dose study in healthy volunteers, psilocybin raised blood pressure moderately at the highest dose and did not affect heart rhythm or body temperature ^{20Reference 20Hasler et al. · 2004RCTAcute psychological and physiological effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-effect study — randomised controlled trialView study →}. A meta-analysis of six trials (528 participants) found more headache, nausea, anxiety, dizziness and raised blood pressure than with control, all resolving within 48 hours ^{22Reference 22Yerubandi et al. · 2024Meta-analysisAcute Adverse Effects of Therapeutic Doses of Psilocybin — systematic review and meta-analysisView study →}. Dilated pupils and impaired coordination are also common during the experience.

Psychological effects. Acute fear, panic, confusion and paranoia are the main harms. Avoid psilocybin mushrooms with a personal or close family history of psychosis, schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. A 2025 meta-analysis of psychedelics found psychosis in about 0.6% of participants in randomised trials, which screen out people at risk, and long-lasting psychotic symptoms in 3.8% of people with schizophrenia in uncontrolled studies ^{23Reference 23Sabé et al. · 2025Meta-analysisReconsidering evidence for psychedelic-induced psychosis — systematic review and meta-analysisView study →}. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), a lasting visual disturbance after the drug has worn off, is uncommon but recognised.

Interactions.

• Lithium: case reports of seizures when combined with psychedelics. Avoid.
• MAOIs: can strongly intensify the experience.
• SSRIs: long-term use may blunt the effects of psilocybin. Some trials have given psilocybin to people taking an SSRI.
• Tramadol, alcohol and other serotonergic or psychiatric medicines: take care.

Heart and blood pressure. Psilocin raises blood pressure and heart rate for a few hours ^{20,22Reference 20Hasler et al. · 2004RCTAcute psychological and physiological effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-effect study — randomised controlled trialView study →Reference 22Yerubandi et al. · 2024Meta-analysisAcute Adverse Effects of Therapeutic Doses of Psilocybin — systematic review and meta-analysisView study →}. Significant cardiovascular disease is a reason to avoid it.

Identification and law. Many toxic mushrooms resemble psychoactive species, and misidentification can cause severe poisoning or death. Psilocybin has been a Schedule I substance under the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances since 1971, and it is controlled or illegal in most countries ^{27Reference 27Kurzbaum et al. · 2025ReviewExploring Psilocybe cubensis strains: cultivation techniques, psychoactive compounds, genetics and research gaps — reviewView study →}.

References

1. Goodwin, G. M., Aaronson, S. T., Alvarez, O., et al. (2022). Single-Dose Psilocybin for a Treatment-Resistant Episode of Major Depression — randomised controlled trial (phase 2). New England Journal of Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36322843/
2. Carhart-Harris, R., Giribaldi, B., Watts, R., et al. (2021). Trial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression — randomised controlled trial. New England Journal of Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33852780/
3. Raison, C. L., Sanacora, G., Woolley, J., et al. (2023). Single-Dose Psilocybin Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder — randomised controlled trial. JAMA. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37651119/
4. Davis, A. K., Barrett, F. S., May, D. G., et al. (2021). Effects of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy on Major Depressive Disorder — randomised controlled trial. JAMA Psychiatry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33146667/
5. von Rotz, R., Schindowski, E. M., Jungwirth, J., et al. (2023). Single-dose psilocybin-assisted therapy in major depressive disorder — placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomised controlled trial. EClinicalMedicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36636296/
6. Carhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J., et al. (2016). Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study. The Lancet Psychiatry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27210031/
7. Erritzoe, D., Barba, T., Greenway, K. T., et al. (2024). Effect of psilocybin versus escitalopram on depression symptom severity: observational 6-month follow-up of a phase 2 randomised controlled trial. EClinicalMedicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39764567/
8. Ross, S., Bossis, A., Guss, J., et al. (2016). Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909164/
9. Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., et al. (2016). Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer — randomised, double-blind trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909165/
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