Chacruna

What Is Chacruna?

Chacruna is a shrub of the coffee family whose leaves are the most common source of DMT in ayahuasca, the visionary brew of the western Amazon. The leaves are boiled with the ayahuasca vine, Banisteriopsis caapi, to make the brew ^{14,18Reference 14Domínguez-Clavé et al. · 2016Ayahuasca: pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potentialView study →Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}.

Psychotria viridis grows in the understorey of tropical forests from Central America and the Caribbean to the Amazon basin ^{21,22Reference 21LorenceLorence, D. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis — botanical description and native range — species database. National Tropical Botanical Garden Tropical Plants Database. https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/psychotria-viridisView study →Reference 22FernFern, K. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. — habit, range, habitat and uses, drawing on Standley & Steyermark, Flora of Guatemala, and Williams, Woods of Northeastern Peru — species database. Useful Tropical Plants Database. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psychotria+viridisView study →}. Its leaves are harvested from the wild for local medicinal use ^{22Reference 22FernFern, K. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. — habit, range, habitat and uses, drawing on Standley & Steyermark, Flora of Guatemala, and Williams, Woods of Northeastern Peru — species database. Useful Tropical Plants Database. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psychotria+viridisView study →}.

The leaves contain N,N-DMT, a psychedelic tryptamine. Swallowed on its own, DMT is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) before it can act. The vine’s harmala alkaloids block that enzyme, so the DMT reaches the brain ^{18Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}. A placebo-controlled trial of the brew found a rapid antidepressant effect in treatment-resistant depression ^{2Reference 2Palhano-Fontes et al. · 2019RCTRapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomised placebo-controlled trialView study →}.

Psychotria is a very large genus, and dried leaves sold as chacruna are hard to identify with certainty. Commercial samples have turned out to vary widely ^{20Reference 20Kowalczuk et al. · 2015Identification challenges in examination of commercial plant material of Psychotria viridis — analyticalView study →}.

How Is Chacruna Used?

Within the brew. The leaves are boiled with the pounded ayahuasca vine to make ayahuasca ^{14,18Reference 14Domínguez-Clavé et al. · 2016Ayahuasca: pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potentialView study →Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}. Experienced practitioners prepare and give the brew in a ceremonial setting. The leaf is not used as a medicine on its own.

Other uses. Dried leaves are also smoked by recreational users ^{20Reference 20Kowalczuk et al. · 2015Identification challenges in examination of commercial plant material of Psychotria viridis — analyticalView study →}.

Traditional Uses

Amazonian Ceremonial Medicine

Across many Amazonian Indigenous and mestizo traditions, the leaves are combined with the Banisteriopsis caapi vine to make ayahuasca, the visionary brew of the western Amazon. Chacruna is a component of the brew rather than a remedy in its own right.

The brew is prepared by long boiling of leaf and vine together. It is taken in structured ceremony, for healing, divination and insight, under the direction of an experienced practitioner.

In some traditions the leaves are added to “strengthen” and “lengthen” the effects of the drink ^{22Reference 22FernFern, K. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. — habit, range, habitat and uses, drawing on Standley & Steyermark, Flora of Guatemala, and Williams, Woods of Northeastern Peru — species database. Useful Tropical Plants Database. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psychotria+viridisView study →}.

Brazilian Ayahuasca Religions

Ayahuasca is also a sacrament in Brazilian syncretic churches, above all the Santo Daime and the União do Vegetal. There it is taken in congregational ceremonies on a fixed calendar rather than in the shamanic model.

Indications

• Depression [leaf in the ayahuasca brew]
• Anxiety [brew]
• Addiction and substance dependence [brew; ceremonial and retreat use]
• Healing, divination and insight [brew; Amazonian ceremonial use]

Botany

Chacruna is a slender evergreen shrub or small tree of the coffee family, Rubiaceae. It grows 1.5–5.4 m tall, and its straight, slender trunk is often unbranched for more than half its height ^{22Reference 22FernFern, K. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. — habit, range, habitat and uses, drawing on Standley & Steyermark, Flora of Guatemala, and Williams, Woods of Northeastern Peru — species database. Useful Tropical Plants Database. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psychotria+viridisView study →}.

Its leaves grow in opposite pairs. They are elliptic, up to 15 cm long and 6 cm wide, and shiny green and hairless above, with hairs on the main veins beneath ^{21Reference 21LorenceLorence, D. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis — botanical description and native range — species database. National Tropical Botanical Garden Tropical Plants Database. https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/psychotria-viridisView study →}.

Each leaf has 5–10 pairs of side veins. Where these meet the midrib, the underside carries tiny pockets called domatia, which appear to house mites that keep the leaf clean ^{21Reference 21LorenceLorence, D. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis — botanical description and native range — species database. National Tropical Botanical Garden Tropical Plants Database. https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/psychotria-viridisView study →}.

The flowers are small, white and stalkless, 1–2 mm long, in branched clusters at the stem tips. The fruits form in dense clusters and ripen purple-red; each is 4–6 mm long ^{21Reference 21LorenceLorence, D. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis — botanical description and native range — species database. National Tropical Botanical Garden Tropical Plants Database. https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/psychotria-viridisView study →}.

The leaf is the part used.

Distribution

Chacruna grows in Central America from Mexico to Panama, in the Caribbean in Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, and in South America in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil ^{22Reference 22FernFern, K. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. — habit, range, habitat and uses, drawing on Standley & Steyermark, Flora of Guatemala, and Williams, Woods of Northeastern Peru — species database. Useful Tropical Plants Database. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psychotria+viridisView study →}.

It grows in moist or wet thickets and as an understorey plant in dense or moderately dense rainforest, often on limestone soils ^{22Reference 22FernFern, K. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. — habit, range, habitat and uses, drawing on Standley & Steyermark, Flora of Guatemala, and Williams, Woods of Northeastern Peru — species database. Useful Tropical Plants Database. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Psychotria+viridisView study →}.

Growing Conditions

Cultivation snapshot for Chacruna

• A true tropical understory plant: grow only in frost-free climates (roughly USDA zone 10+), or as a protected greenhouse/container specimen elsewhere.
• Give it dappled or partial shade rather than full sun, echoing the forest floor, with warm temperatures and high humidity year-round.
• Wants rich, well-drained, consistently moist loam.
• Propagates very readily from cuttings — even a single leaf lightly covered with soil can root; seed is slow and unreliable, taking months to germinate.

Grow it yourself

Farm Wiki is our cultivation-focused sister site, also run by Justin Cooke.

How to growComing soon

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Phytochemistry

The main alkaloid of chacruna leaf is N,N-DMT. DMT makes up 0.1–0.66% of the dried leaf, depending on the plant and the time of day it was picked ^{16Reference 16Simão et al. · 2019ReviewToxicological aspects and determination of the main components of ayahuasca: a critical reviewView study →}.

Smaller amounts of N-methyltryptamine and the β-carboline 2-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline (MTHC) accompany it ^{17Reference 17Estrella-Parra et al. · 2019ReviewAyahuasca: uses, phytochemical and biological activities — reviewView study →}. The MAO-inhibiting β-carbolines of ayahuasca come from the vine ^{18Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}.

DMT content varies widely between plants. In a survey of 36 samples from 22 sites across Brazil, some had little or no detectable DMT ^{19Reference 19Callaway et al. · 2005Phytochemical analyses of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis — analyticalView study →}.

The leaves also contain triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic acids), plant sterols including β-sitosterol and stigmasterol, squalene and long-chain fatty acids ^{1Reference 1Soares et al. · 2017Psychotria viridis: chemical constituents from leaves and biological propertiesView study →}.

Constituent Summary

Figures are percentages of dried leaf.

† The marker constituent that makes chacruna a DMT-bearing ayahuasca admixture.

Pharmacology & Research

Most human research relevant to chacruna is on the ayahuasca brew, made from Psychotria viridis leaf boiled with Banisteriopsis caapi vine.

The leaf supplies N,N-DMT, a 5-HT2A receptor agonist ^{14Reference 14Domínguez-Clavé et al. · 2016Ayahuasca: pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potentialView study →}. Swallowed on its own, DMT is broken down by MAO in the gut. The vine’s β-carbolines inhibit MAO, which makes the DMT orally active ^{18Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}.

The strongest human finding is an antidepressant effect: one small double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in treatment-resistant depression, with supporting open-label and biomarker studies ^{2,3,4,5,6Reference 2Palhano-Fontes et al. · 2019RCTRapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomised placebo-controlled trialView study →Reference 3Osório et al. · 2015Clinical trialAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary reportView study →Reference 4Sanches et al. · 2016Clinical trialAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a SPECT studyView study →Reference 5de Almeida et al. · 2019RCTModulation of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor by a single dose of ayahuasca: observation from a randomized controlled trialView study →Reference 6Galvão-Coelho et al. · 2020Changes in inflammatory biomarkers are related to the antidepressant effects of ayahuascaView study →}.

The anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and neurogenic findings for DMT come from cell studies and from animals given DMT by injection ^{9,10,11,12Reference 9Morales-Garcia et al. · 2020In vitroN,N-dimethyltryptamine compound found in the hallucinogenic tea ayahuasca regulates adult neurogenesis in vitro and in vivoView study →Reference 10Szabo et al. · 2014Psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory responses through the sigma-1 receptor of human monocyte-derived dendritic cellsView study →Reference 11Nardai et al. · 2020AnimalN,N-dimethyltryptamine reduces infarct size and improves functional recovery following transient focal brain ischemia in ratsView study →Reference 12Szabó et al. · 2021AnimalN,N-dimethyltryptamine attenuates spreading depolarization and restrains neurodegeneration by sigma-1 receptor activation in the ischemic rat brainView study →}. In a survey of more than 10,000 ayahuasca drinkers, 69.9% reported acute physical effects, mainly vomiting ^{15Reference 15Bouso et al. · 2022Adverse effects of ayahuasca: results from the Global Ayahuasca SurveyView study →}.

1. Antidepressant

In a parallel-arm, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 29 patients with treatment-resistant depression, a single dose of the brew lowered MADRS depression scores more than placebo at days 1, 2 and 7. The between-group effect size reached Cohen’s d = 1.49 by day 7, and the response rate at day 7 was 64% against 27% ^{2Reference 2Palhano-Fontes et al. · 2019RCTRapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomised placebo-controlled trialView study →}.

This built on an open-label inpatient study in six patients with recurrent depression, whose depression scores fell by up to 82% at 1, 7 and 21 days ^{3Reference 3Osório et al. · 2015Clinical trialAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary reportView study →}. A follow-up in 17 patients found scores falling from 80 minutes after dosing to day 21, with increased blood flow in brain regions involved in mood ^{4Reference 4Sanches et al. · 2016Clinical trialAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a SPECT studyView study →}.

Two studies from the randomised trial found serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) higher and C-reactive protein lower after the brew than after placebo ^{5,6Reference 5de Almeida et al. · 2019RCTModulation of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor by a single dose of ayahuasca: observation from a randomized controlled trialView study →Reference 6Galvão-Coelho et al. · 2020Changes in inflammatory biomarkers are related to the antidepressant effects of ayahuascaView study →}. Systematic reviews identify depression as the most developed clinical indication for ayahuasca ^{7,8Reference 7Dos Santos et al. · 2016Systematic reviewAntidepressive, anxiolytic and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide: a systematic review of clinical trialsView study →Reference 8Dos Santos et al. · 2018Systematic reviewEfficacy, tolerability and safety of serotonergic psychedelics for the management of mood, anxiety and substance-use disorders: a systematic review of systematic reviewsView study →}.

The active molecule chacruna contributes is N,N-DMT, a 5-HT2A agonist ^{4Reference 4Sanches et al. · 2016Clinical trialAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a SPECT studyView study →}.

Gap: one small single-dose RCT of the whole brew. A psychedelic is hard to blind, so expectancy is difficult to control.

2. Anti-Inflammatory

N,N-DMT and its relative 5-MeO-DMT reduced the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-8 and raised the anti-inflammatory IL-10 in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells, by activating the sigma-1 receptor ^{10Reference 10Szabo et al. · 2014Psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory responses through the sigma-1 receptor of human monocyte-derived dendritic cellsView study →}.

In the randomised depression trial, C-reactive protein fell after the brew in both patients and healthy controls but not after placebo. In patients, larger falls went with lower depression scores at 48 hours. Interleukin-6 did not change ^{6Reference 6Galvão-Coelho et al. · 2020Changes in inflammatory biomarkers are related to the antidepressant effects of ayahuascaView study →}.

Gap: no study has measured an inflammatory disease outcome. The human signal is a biomarker change inside a depression trial, and the mechanism is isolated DMT on cultured cells.

3. Anxiolytic

The open-label depression study reported fast-acting anti-anxiety as well as antidepressant effects ^{3Reference 3Osório et al. · 2015Clinical trialAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary reportView study →}. Systematic reviews of psychedelic trials report reduced anxiety, but mainly from psilocybin and LSD in people with cancer. For ayahuasca, the reported benefit is for depression ^{7,8Reference 7Dos Santos et al. · 2016Systematic reviewAntidepressive, anxiolytic and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide: a systematic review of clinical trialsView study →Reference 8Dos Santos et al. · 2018Systematic reviewEfficacy, tolerability and safety of serotonergic psychedelics for the management of mood, anxiety and substance-use disorders: a systematic review of systematic reviewsView study →}. All the studies were small, and half were open-label ^{7Reference 7Dos Santos et al. · 2016Systematic reviewAntidepressive, anxiolytic and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide: a systematic review of clinical trialsView study →}.

A review of ayahuasca’s pharmacology describes increases in mindfulness facets related to acceptance after ayahuasca intake ^{14Reference 14Domínguez-Clavé et al. · 2016Ayahuasca: pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potentialView study →}.

In the randomised depression trial, transient anxiety during the session was reported by 50% of the ayahuasca group and 73% of the placebo group ^{2Reference 2Palhano-Fontes et al. · 2019RCTRapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomised placebo-controlled trialView study →}.

Gap: no trial has taken anxiety as a primary outcome.

4. Neuroplasticity

Isolated N,N-DMT activated the main adult neurogenic niche of the hippocampus in mice, promoting new neurons, and the treated mice performed better in memory tests. The effect was blocked by a sigma-1 receptor antagonist ^{9Reference 9Morales-Garcia et al. · 2020In vitroN,N-dimethyltryptamine compound found in the hallucinogenic tea ayahuasca regulates adult neurogenesis in vitro and in vivoView study →}.

In a randomised controlled trial, serum BDNF was higher 48 hours after the brew than after placebo, in both patients and controls. In patients given the brew, higher BDNF went with lower depression scores ^{5Reference 5de Almeida et al. · 2019RCTModulation of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor by a single dose of ayahuasca: observation from a randomized controlled trialView study →}.

Gap: the neurogenesis data are preclinical and used injected DMT; the human evidence is one serum marker at one time point.

5. Anti-Addictive

An observational study followed 12 participants through ayahuasca-assisted retreats for addiction and stress in a First Nations community in British Columbia, combining four days of group counselling with two ayahuasca ceremonies. At six months, scores for hopefulness, empowerment, mindfulness and quality of life had improved. Self-reported alcohol, tobacco and cocaine use declined, and the fall in problematic cocaine use was significant. Cannabis and opiate use did not decline ^{13Reference 13Thomas et al. · 2013ObservationalAyahuasca-assisted therapy for addiction: results from a preliminary observational study in CanadaView study →}.

A review of systematic reviews credits the controlled results for alcohol and tobacco dependence to psilocybin and LSD rather than ayahuasca ^{8Reference 8Dos Santos et al. · 2018Systematic reviewEfficacy, tolerability and safety of serotonergic psychedelics for the management of mood, anxiety and substance-use disorders: a systematic review of systematic reviewsView study →}.

Gap: the strongest ayahuasca study is 12 people in a group-therapy retreat, uncontrolled, so the brew’s contribution cannot be separated from the therapy and the setting.

6. Neuroprotective

N,N-DMT binds the sigma-1 receptor. In rats, injected DMT given around a temporary blockage of the middle cerebral artery reduced the size of the brain lesion and improved functional recovery, an effect blocked by a sigma-1 antagonist ^{11Reference 11Nardai et al. · 2020AnimalN,N-dimethyltryptamine reduces infarct size and improves functional recovery following transient focal brain ischemia in ratsView study →}.

In a model of global forebrain ischaemia, intravenous DMT damped spreading depolarisations and reduced cell death, again through sigma-1 ^{12Reference 12Szabó et al. · 2021AnimalN,N-dimethyltryptamine attenuates spreading depolarization and restrains neurodegeneration by sigma-1 receptor activation in the ischemic rat brainView study →}.

Gap: animal and cell work only, using DMT by injection at controlled doses in acute-injury models.

Mechanisms

N,N-DMT is an agonist at the 5-HT2A receptor, which produces the acute psychedelic effect ^{14Reference 14Domínguez-Clavé et al. · 2016Ayahuasca: pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potentialView study →}. It also activates the sigma-1 receptor, which has been studied for anti-inflammatory, neurogenic and neuroprotective effects ^{9,10,11,12Reference 9Morales-Garcia et al. · 2020In vitroN,N-dimethyltryptamine compound found in the hallucinogenic tea ayahuasca regulates adult neurogenesis in vitro and in vivoView study →Reference 10Szabo et al. · 2014Psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory responses through the sigma-1 receptor of human monocyte-derived dendritic cellsView study →Reference 11Nardai et al. · 2020AnimalN,N-dimethyltryptamine reduces infarct size and improves functional recovery following transient focal brain ischemia in ratsView study →Reference 12Szabó et al. · 2021AnimalN,N-dimethyltryptamine attenuates spreading depolarization and restrains neurodegeneration by sigma-1 receptor activation in the ischemic rat brainView study →}.

Every oral effect depends on MAO inhibition, which in ayahuasca comes from the vine’s harmala β-carbolines ^{18Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}.

Clinical Trials

Registered human trials are few and centre on depression: of roughly fourteen ayahuasca studies on ClinicalTrials.gov, about five are completed, several are recruiting, and a small number were terminated or withdrawn. All test the brew, not chacruna alone.

Last checked: August 2026.

Dosage

Chacruna is not dosed on its own. It is brewed with Banisteriopsis caapi, and trials dose the brew by its DMT content.

Traditional Dosage

Safety & Pregnancy

Chacruna is psychoactive by mouth only when combined with an MAO inhibitor. Most of its risk comes from that combination: food and drug interactions, and intense psychological effects.

Full Safety Detail

MAO inhibition. Swallowed DMT is inactivated in the gut, so chacruna is psychoactive only when combined with an MAO inhibitor, in practice the β-carbolines of the ayahuasca vine ^{18Reference 18McKenna et al. · 1984In vitroMonoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitroView study →}. MAO inhibition makes tyramine-rich foods and many medications dangerous and can cause hypertensive reactions. Combining ayahuasca with SSRIs or other serotonergic drugs risks serotonin toxicity.

Vomiting and acute effects. In the Global Ayahuasca Survey of 10,836 people, 69.9% reported acute physical effects, mainly vomiting, and 2.3% needed medical attention afterwards ^{15Reference 15Bouso et al. · 2022Adverse effects of ayahuasca: results from the Global Ayahuasca SurveyView study →}. In the randomised depression trial, 57% vomited after the brew ^{2Reference 2Palhano-Fontes et al. · 2019RCTRapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomised placebo-controlled trialView study →}.

Psychological effects. In the same survey, 55.9% reported adverse mental-health effects in the weeks or months after drinking, and about 88% of them saw these as part of a positive process. Physical effects were more common in people with a physical health condition and in unsupervised settings; mental-health effects were more common in people with anxiety disorders ^{15Reference 15Bouso et al. · 2022Adverse effects of ayahuasca: results from the Global Ayahuasca SurveyView study →}.

Legal status. DMT and ayahuasca are controlled substances in most countries, with limited religious exemptions. Chacruna itself is a controlled plant in Poland and France ^{20Reference 20Kowalczuk et al. · 2015Identification challenges in examination of commercial plant material of Psychotria viridis — analyticalView study →}.

Enzymes. The enzyme that matters is monoamine oxidase, and it is inhibited by the vine, not by chacruna. No CYP450 interaction is known for the leaf.

References

1. Soares, D. B. S., Duarte, L. P., Cavalcanti, A. D., et al. (2017). Psychotria viridis: chemical constituents from leaves and biological properties. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640347/
2. Palhano-Fontes, F., Barreto, D., Onias, H., et al. (2019). Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Psychological Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29903051/
3. Osório, F. L., Sanches, R. F., Macedo, L. R., et al. (2015). Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25806551/
4. Sanches, R. F., de Lima Osório, F., Dos Santos, R. G., et al. (2016). Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a SPECT study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26650973/
5. de Almeida, R. N., Galvão, A. C. M., da Silva, F. S., et al. (2019). Modulation of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor by a single dose of ayahuasca: observation from a randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31231276/
6. Galvão-Coelho, N. L., de Menezes Galvão, A. C., de Almeida, R. N., et al. (2020). Changes in inflammatory biomarkers are related to the antidepressant effects of ayahuasca. Journal of Psychopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32648790/
7. Dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A., et al. (2016). Antidepressive, anxiolytic and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide: a systematic review of clinical trials. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27354908/
8. Dos Santos, R. G., Bouso, J. C., Alcázar-Córcoles, M. Á., et al. (2018). Efficacy, tolerability and safety of serotonergic psychedelics for the management of mood, anxiety and substance-use disorders: a systematic review of systematic reviews. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30102078/
9. Morales-Garcia, J. A., Calleja-Conde, J., Lopez-Moreno, J. A., et al. (2020). N,N-dimethyltryptamine compound found in the hallucinogenic tea ayahuasca regulates adult neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Translational Psychiatry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32989216/
10. Szabo, A., Kovacs, A., Frecska, E., & Rajnavolgyi, E. (2014). Psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory responses through the sigma-1 receptor of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. PLOS ONE. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25171370/
11. Nardai, S., László, M., Szabó, A., et al. (2020). N,N-dimethyltryptamine reduces infarct size and improves functional recovery following transient focal brain ischemia in rats. Experimental Neurology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32067950/
12. Szabó, Í., Varga, V. É., Dvorácskó, S., et al. (2021). N,N-dimethyltryptamine attenuates spreading depolarization and restrains neurodegeneration by sigma-1 receptor activation in the ischemic rat brain. Neuropharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34023338/
13. Thomas, G., Lucas, P., Capler, N. R., et al. (2013). Ayahuasca-assisted therapy for addiction: results from a preliminary observational study in Canada. Current Drug Abuse Reviews. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23627784/
14. Domínguez-Clavé, E., Soler, J., Elices, M., et al. (2016). Ayahuasca: pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential. Brain Research Bulletin. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26976063/
15. Bouso, J. C., Andión, Ó., Sarris, J. J., et al. (2022). Adverse effects of ayahuasca: results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey. PLOS Global Public Health. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36962494/
16. Simão, A. Y., Gonçalves, J., Duarte, A. P., Barroso, M., Cristóvão, A. C., & Gallardo, E. (2019). Toxicological aspects and determination of the main components of ayahuasca: a critical review. Medicines (Basel), 6(4). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31635364/
17. Estrella-Parra, E. A., Almanza-Pérez, J. C., & Alarcón-Aguilar, F. J. (2019). Ayahuasca: uses, phytochemical and biological activities — review. Natural Products and Bioprospecting, 9(4), 251-265. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31134518/
18. McKenna, D. J., Towers, G. H., & Abbott, F. (1984). Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and beta-carboline constituents of ayahuasca — analytical and in vitro. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 10(2), 195-223. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6587171/
19. Callaway, J. C., Brito, G. S., & Neves, E. S. (2005). Phytochemical analyses of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis — analytical. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 37(2), 145-150. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16149327/
20. Kowalczuk, A. P., Łozak, A., Bachliński, R., Duszyński, A., Sakowska, J., & Zjawiony, J. K. (2015). Identification challenges in examination of commercial plant material of Psychotria viridis — analytical. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica, 72(4), 747-755. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26647632/
21. Lorence, D. (n.d.). Psychotria viridis — botanical description and native range — species database. National Tropical Botanical Garden Tropical Plants Database. https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/psychotria-viridis
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