Palmitic Acid

Palmitic Acid at a Glance

Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid (C16:0), is the most common saturated fatty acid in the human body and in the human diet — a straight 16-carbon chain with no double bonds. It is the principal fat of palm oil (about 44%), a major fatty acid of meat, dairy, cocoa butter and human milk, and, uniquely among common fats, the direct end-product of the body’s own fat synthesis: fatty acid synthase builds palmitate from acetyl-CoA before any further elongation or desaturation ^{1,2Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}.

That makes it primarily a subject of dietary and structural biochemistry, not therapeutics. It is not a supplement, not a plant “active”, and not a drug — it is eaten in gram quantities every day and manufactured continuously inside cells. Its two genuinely interesting biological stories are opposite in sign: on one hand it is a real cell-signalling lipid, the fatty acid that cells attach to hundreds of proteins (S-palmitoylation) to control where those proteins go and how long they last ^{6Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →}; on the other, nutritionally it is the archetypal LDL-cholesterol-raising saturated fat ^{3Reference 3Mensink RP et al. · 2003Meta-analysisEffects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trialsView study →}, and in excess the classic lipotoxic fatty acid that drives insulin resistance, ER stress and cell death in laboratory models ^{5Reference 5Palomer X et al. · 2018Palmitic and Oleic Acid: The Yin and Yang of Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes MellitusView study →}.

It carries a low toxicity flag as a ubiquitous food fat — but that badge comes with a real nutritional caveat, spelled out below: the harm from palmitic acid is not acute poisoning but the cardiovascular and metabolic cost of dietary excess. And a warning for reading the literature: GC-MS surveys of plant extracts routinely list palmitic acid among “antimicrobial” or “anticancer” volatiles, but those attributions are usually weak and non-specific — palmitic acid turns up in almost every extract precisely because it is everywhere ^{10Reference 10Lawson SK et al. · 2021The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal PlantsView study →}.

The Most Common Saturated Fat

The single most important fact about palmitic acid is its ubiquity. It is the most abundant saturated fatty acid in essentially all living tissue — roughly 20-30% of total fatty acids in the human body — and the dominant saturated fat of the diet ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}. It is richest in palm oil (~44%), but a major component of animal fat, dairy, cocoa butter, and human milk fat (~20-25%, where it is distinctively concentrated at the sn-2 position of the triglyceride) ^{1,2Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}.

What sets it apart from dietary fats like oleic acid or linoleic acid is that the body does not depend on food for it at all. Palmitic acid is the committed end-product of de-novo lipogenesis: the multi-enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FAS) assembles it from malonyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA and releases it as C16:0, the starting point for the elongases and desaturases that make longer and unsaturated fatty acids ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}. So palmitic acid is simultaneously the most-eaten saturated fat and the one the body makes for itself — which is exactly why “cutting palmitic acid” is not simple, and why its tissue levels reflect metabolic state as much as diet.

Because it is everywhere, palmitic acid appears in the phytochemical profile of a great many herbs here — as a seed-oil or fixed-oil component (milk thistle, maca), a resin/lipid-fraction constituent (juniper), or a major essential-oil component (blue vervain). In almost every case it is structural background, not the active fraction.

Protein S-Palmitoylation

The one place palmitic acid is a bona-fide signalling molecule rather than a fuel or building block is protein S-palmitoylation — the reversible attachment of the C16 chain (as palmitoyl-CoA) to cysteine residues on proteins, catalysed by a family of DHHC palmitoyl-acyltransferases and removed by thioesterases ^{6Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →}.

Because the thioester bond is reversible, palmitoylation works as a dynamic switch — the fatty-acid equivalent of phosphorylation. It anchors otherwise-soluble proteins to membranes, sorts them into specific membrane domains, and regulates their trafficking, stability and turnover ^{6Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →}. Classic substrates include Ras GTPases, many G-protein subunits and ion channels; the modification is central to how these proteins localise and signal. It is a genuine, mechanistically well-characterised role for the molecule — but note the framing: this is palmitoyl-CoA acting as an intracellular substrate, driven by the cell’s own metabolism, not a pharmacological effect of eaten or supplemented palmitic acid.

What It's Used For

Palmitic acid has essentially no therapeutic pharmacology as an isolate. Its evidence base is a mix of (1) well-established nutritional findings where the direction of effect is adverse, (2) mechanistic cell biology, and (3) weak, non-specific in-vitro reports from plant-extract surveys. The honest reading is that the strongest, best-evidenced “applications” here describe a cardiovascular risk and a lipotoxic hazard, not a benefit.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support · Beta

Support is an experimental score — weighted by study type (human > animal > in vitro) and volume. A beta, not a validated metric. Read the direction of each row: the two highest-scoring here are a cardiovascular risk and a metabolic hazard, not benefits, and the lowest reflect an isolate that failed to act.

01Cardiovascular — Raises LDL (dietary SFA)Promising52%Human controlled-feeding meta-analysis + Cochrane review — direction is LDL-raising / risk ^{3,4Reference 3Mensink RP et al. · 2003Meta-analysisEffects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trialsView study →Reference 4Hooper L et al. · 2020Systematic reviewReduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular diseaseView study →}

02Lipotoxicity & Insulin ResistanceShaky42%Extensive cell/animal mechanism; palmitate the archetypal lipotoxic fatty acid ^{5Reference 5Palomer X et al. · 2018Palmitic and Oleic Acid: The Yin and Yang of Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes MellitusView study →}

03Cell Signalling (S-palmitoylation)Shaky40%Well-characterised intracellular protein modification — biology, not a drug effect ^{6Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →}

04Antimicrobial / Anticancer (GC-MS claims)Shaky15%Weak, non-specific whole-extract in-vitro attributions ^{10Reference 10Lawson SK et al. · 2021The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal PlantsView study →}

055α-Reductase (saw palmetto fraction)Shaky8%Isolate assay — palmitic acid did not inhibit (unlike oleic/lauric/myristic) ^{8,9Reference 8Booker A et al. · 2014A phytochemical comparison of saw palmetto products using gas chromatography and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolomic profilingView study →Reference 9Abe M et al. · 2009Pharmacologically relevant receptor binding characteristics and 5alpha-reductase inhibitory activity of free fatty acids contained in saw palmetto extractView study →}

Mechanisms

The load-bearing point is that palmitic acid’s well-evidenced effects are metabolic/structural (and, dietarily, adverse) — not therapeutic. Its only true “signalling” role, palmitoylation, is intracellular biochemistry, not a property of eaten palmitic acid.

Pharmacokinetics

Palmitic acid is handled as ordinary dietary fat, so it has no meaningful “oral bioavailability” figure in the pharmacological sense. Eaten as triglycerides, it is released by pancreatic lipase, absorbed as free fatty acid and 2-monoacylglycerol into bile-salt mixed micelles, taken up by enterocytes, re-esterified and exported in chylomicrons — long-chain fatty-acid absorption is highly efficient. Distinctively, the sn-2 position of the triglyceride matters for palmitic acid: palmitate esterified at sn-2 (as in human milk fat) is absorbed better than sn-1/3 palmitate, which can form poorly-absorbed calcium soaps ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}. Once absorbed it is distributed to tissues and either incorporated into membrane phospholipids and storage triglycerides, β-oxidised for energy, elongated/desaturated (e.g. to stearic and then oleic acid via SCD1), or used as palmitoyl-CoA for protein palmitoylation ^{1,6Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →}. Crucially, the body also synthesises it de novo via FAS, so circulating and tissue palmitate reflect endogenous production as well as diet — there is no simple dose-response between intake and tissue level ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}.

Clinical Trials

There are no clinical trials of isolated palmitic acid as a therapeutic drug — it is a dietary and endogenous fatty acid, not a candidate medicine. The relevant human evidence is nutritional: controlled-feeding studies of saturated-fat effects on blood lipids ^{3Reference 3Mensink RP et al. · 2003Meta-analysisEffects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trialsView study →} and dietary-intervention/epidemiological work on saturated-fat reduction and cardiovascular outcomes ^{4Reference 4Hooper L et al. · 2020Systematic reviewReduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular diseaseView study →}, within which palmitic acid is the dominant saturated fatty acid rather than an isolated intervention. Isolate work (palmitoylation biology, lipotoxicity, pro-metastatic priming) is mechanistic/preclinical ^{5,6,7Reference 5Palomer X et al. · 2018Palmitic and Oleic Acid: The Yin and Yang of Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes MellitusView study →Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →Reference 7Pascual G et al. · 2021Dietary palmitic acid promotes a prometastatic memory via Schwann cellsView study →}.

Last checked: July 2026.

Isolate vs. Plant Studies

Palmitic acid inverts the usual “isolate vs. plant” question, because there is essentially no therapeutic claim on either side to adjudicate. The best human evidence is dietary and points to harm — saturated-fat feeding raising LDL ^{3Reference 3Mensink RP et al. · 2003Meta-analysisEffects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trialsView study →} and saturated-fat reduction lowering cardiovascular risk ^{4Reference 4Hooper L et al. · 2020Systematic reviewReduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular diseaseView study →} — where palmitic acid is the largest saturated fatty acid but never isolated as an intervention. The isolate-level data are mechanistic: lipotoxicity assays ^{5Reference 5Palomer X et al. · 2018Palmitic and Oleic Acid: The Yin and Yang of Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes MellitusView study →}, palmitoylation biochemistry ^{6Reference 6Linder ME · 2007Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and trafficView study →}, and the pro-metastatic dietary-priming study ^{7Reference 7Pascual G et al. · 2021Dietary palmitic acid promotes a prometastatic memory via Schwann cellsView study →}, all describing biology or harm rather than benefit. As a plant-extract constituent (saw palmetto, milk thistle, maca, juniper, blue vervain) palmitic acid is consistently structural background: present, often abundant, but not the active fraction — and in saw palmetto’s case explicitly not among the fatty acids driving the extract’s 5α-reductase activity ^{8,9Reference 8Booker A et al. · 2014A phytochemical comparison of saw palmetto products using gas chromatography and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolomic profilingView study →Reference 9Abe M et al. · 2009Pharmacologically relevant receptor binding characteristics and 5alpha-reductase inhibitory activity of free fatty acids contained in saw palmetto extractView study →}. GC-MS “bioactivity” attributions to it should be read as artefacts of its ubiquity, not evidence ^{10Reference 10Lawson SK et al. · 2021The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal PlantsView study →}.

Its Role in Plants

In plants — as in animals — palmitic acid is a core structural lipid, not a defence compound. It is a major saturated component of membrane phospholipids and of the storage triglycerides in oil-rich seeds and fruit, and it is the point of entry into fatty-acid biosynthesis: plant fatty acid synthase produces palmitoyl-ACP (C16:0), which is then elongated to stearate and desaturated to unsaturated fatty acids, or exported for membrane and oil assembly ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}. It also contributes to surface cuticular waxes and cutin in some tissues. Its prominence in fruit oils like palm reflects storage biology, not a signalling or ecological role — which is why its abundance in a plant extract carries no pharmacological implication.

Prevalence in Nature

Palmitic acid is the most widespread saturated fatty acid in nature, present in virtually all plant and animal lipids. Its richest common source is palm oil (from Elaeis guineensis), at roughly 40-48% of total fatty acids — the reason it bears the name ^{2Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}. It is a major fatty acid of animal fats, dairy, cocoa butter and lard (typically ~20-30%), and is distinctively abundant in human and mammalian milk fat (~20-25%), where it is concentrated at the sn-2 triglyceride position for efficient infant absorption ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}.

Among the herbs here it appears as a seed-oil / fixed-oil component of milk thistle and maca, a resin/lipid-fraction constituent of juniper, a fatty-acid-fraction component (~8.5-9.2%) of saw palmetto berries ^{8Reference 8Booker A et al. · 2014A phytochemical comparison of saw palmetto products using gas chromatography and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolomic profilingView study →}, and a major essential-oil component of blue vervain (Verbena hastata), where it can reach ~22% of the oil ^{10Reference 10Lawson SK et al. · 2021The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal PlantsView study →}. It is not confined to the diet or plants: animals and humans synthesise it endogenously via fatty acid synthase, so it is present in every tissue regardless of intake ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}.

Major Natural Sources

Source	Part	Reported palmitic acid content
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)	palm oil	~40-48% of total fatty acids 2Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →
Human/mammalian milk	milk fat	~20-25% of total fatty acids 1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →
Cocoa butter / animal fats	fat	~20-30% of total fatty acids 1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →
Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens)	berry FA fraction	~8.5-9.2% of the fatty-acid fraction 8Reference 8Booker A et al. · 2014A phytochemical comparison of saw palmetto products using gas chromatography and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolomic profilingView study →
Blue vervain (Verbena hastata)	essential oil	up to ~22% of the oil 10Reference 10Lawson SK et al. · 2021The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal PlantsView study →

These are percentages of the oil or fatty-acid fraction, not of the whole plant, and vary with species, part and processing ^{1,2Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}.

Discovery & Synthesis

Palmitic acid was among the saturated fatty acids characterised in the classical era of fat chemistry. It was isolated in the 1840s from palm oil by the French chemist Edmond Frémy, part of the nineteenth-century work (following Chevreul) that separated natural fats into their component fatty acids; its name comes from the Latin palma, after its principal source. Because it is a simple, unbranched saturated C16 acid, its structure was settled early and it became a reference compound across lipid science.

Manufacture today is by extraction and fractionation of natural fats, not total synthesis: commercial palmitic acid is obtained industrially from palm oil, palm-kernel oil, tallow and other triglyceride sources by hydrolysis (splitting) of the fat into free fatty acids followed by fractional distillation. It is a large-volume oleochemical feedstock — used in soaps, surfactants, cosmetics (as a component and as its salts/esters), lubricants and food processing — so most commercial palmitic acid is a purified natural product, not a made molecule. Its metabolic “synthesis” of interest is biological: the fatty acid synthase reaction that builds it de novo inside cells ^{1Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →}.

Patents: not yet researched.

Toxicity & Safety

Palmitic acid carries a low toxicity flag, and the justification is straightforward: it is a staple dietary and endogenous fatty acid eaten in gram quantities daily and synthesised continuously by the body, generally recognised as safe in food, with no concern of acute poisoning at ordinary exposure ^{1,2Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}. The important caveats are nutritional, not toxicological — the harm from palmitic acid is the cumulative cardiovascular and metabolic cost of dietary excess, not a poison effect.

Safety at a Glance

✅ Low / no toxicity

• A safe, ubiquitous dietary fat. Eaten in quantity for all of human history, GRAS in food, and synthesised by the body itself — no acute-toxicity concern at dietary/endogenous levels ^{1,2Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}.
• It raises LDL cholesterol. As the dominant dietary saturated fat, palmitic acid increases LDL relative to unsaturated fats; dietary guidance is to limit saturated fat, and reducing it modestly lowers cardiovascular events ^{3,4Reference 3Mensink RP et al. · 2003Meta-analysisEffects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trialsView study →Reference 4Hooper L et al. · 2020Systematic reviewReduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular diseaseView study →}.
• The lipotoxic fatty acid of metabolic disease. In excess (and in lab models) palmitate drives ER stress, inflammation, insulin resistance and cell death — with oleic acid typically protective ^{5Reference 5Palomer X et al. · 2018Palmitic and Oleic Acid: The Yin and Yang of Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes MellitusView study →}.
• Ignore GC-MS “bioactivity” claims. Reports crediting palmitic acid with antimicrobial or anticancer effects from whole-extract screens are weak and non-specific; it is present because it is ubiquitous, not because it is active ^{10Reference 10Lawson SK et al. · 2021The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal PlantsView study →}.

Pregnancy/lactation is a per-herb / per-supplement decision and is not adjudicated on this molecule page; as an ordinary dietary and endogenous fatty acid — indeed a major component of human milk fat — palmitic acid has no isolate-specific reproductive-toxicity signal at food-level exposure, and no isolate verdict is issued here.

Dosage

There is no established or recommended supplemental dose of isolated palmitic acid — it is a dietary and endogenous saturated fatty acid, and the relevant public-health message is to limit saturated fat rather than to supplement it ^{3,4Reference 3Mensink RP et al. · 2003Meta-analysisEffects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trialsView study →Reference 4Hooper L et al. · 2020Systematic reviewReduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular diseaseView study →}. The meaningful human “dose” is dietary: total saturated-fat intake in typical Western diets runs on the order of 20-30 g/day, of which palmitic acid is usually the single largest component ^{1,2Reference 1Carta G et al. · 2017Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional ImplicationsView study →Reference 2Mancini A et al. · 2015Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on HealthView study →}.

These are dietary and compositional figures, not a personal recommendation, and they describe whole foods or extract fractions rather than a dose of the pure compound.

References

1. Carta G, Murru E, Banni S, Manca C (2017). Palmitic Acid: Physiological Role, Metabolism and Nutritional Implications. Frontiers in Physiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29167646/
2. Mancini A, Imperlini E, Nigro E, Montagnese C, Daniele A, Orrù S, Buono P (2015). Biological and Nutritional Properties of Palm Oil and Palmitic Acid: Effects on Health. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26393565/
3. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB (2003). Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12716665/
4. Hooper L, Martin N, Jimoh OF, Kirk C, Foster E, Abdelhamid AS (2020). Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32428300/
5. Palomer X, Pizarro-Delgado J, Barroso E, Vázquez-Carrera M (2018). Palmitic and Oleic Acid: The Yin and Yang of Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29290500/
6. Linder ME, Deschenes RJ (2007). Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and traffic. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183362/
7. Pascual G, Domínguez D, Elosúa-Bayes M, et al. (2021). Dietary palmitic acid promotes a prometastatic memory via Schwann cells. Nature. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34759321/
8. Booker A, Suter A, Krnjic A, Strassel B, Zloh M, Said M, Heinrich M (2014). A phytochemical comparison of saw palmetto products using gas chromatography and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolomic profiling. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24417505/
9. Abe M, Ito Y, Oyunzul L, Oki-Fujino T, Yamada S (2009). Pharmacologically relevant receptor binding characteristics and 5alpha-reductase inhibitory activity of free fatty acids contained in saw palmetto extract. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19336899/
10. Lawson SK, Satyal P, Setzer WN (2021). The Volatile Phytochemistry of Seven Native American Aromatic Medicinal Plants. Plants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34070663/

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