Juniper (Juniperus communis) Herbal Monograph

What Is Juniper?

Common juniper is a hardy evergreen conifer whose ripe, berry-like seed cones are used as a medicine, a spice and the defining flavour of gin. In European herbal medicine the berries are taken to increase urine flow in minor urinary complaints and to relieve indigestion and wind ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Juniperus communis is the most widespread conifer in the world, native across temperate Europe, Asia and North America ^{26Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →}. It grows as anything from a low, spreading mat to a small tree, in an extraordinary range of habitats ^{26,27Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →Reference 27Adams RP · 1993Juniperus communis Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

The berry’s essential oil is dominated by α-pinene, with sabinene, myrcene, β-pinene, limonene and terpinen-4-ol ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. Laboratory and animal studies have looked at its antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and blood-sugar effects, and no human trial has been published ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

Juniper berries are occasionally adulterated with the fruits of other junipers, including savin (Juniperus sabina), whose fruits are almost black and only 5–8 mm across ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

How Is Juniper Used?

Juniper is used as the ripe, dried berry, crushed just before use.

Infusion — 2–2.5 g of crushed berries steeped in boiling water, for urinary flushing or for digestion ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.
Tincture and liquid extract — the alcoholic preparations recognised in European herbal practice ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.
Topical oil — rubbed over rheumatic pain in joints and muscles ^{22Reference 22British Herbal Medicine Association · 1983British Herbal Pharmacopoeia}.
Food and drink — a culinary spice, and the defining botanical of gin ^{27Reference 27Adams RP · 1993Juniperus communis Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

Traditional Uses

Western Herbal Medicine

The part used is the ripe seed cone, the “berry”, taken as an infusion or tincture, chewed, or applied externally as an oil. The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia classes it as a diuretic, antiseptic, carminative, stomachic and anti-rheumatic, for acute and chronic cystitis, flatulent colic, oedema and rheumatism, with topical use over rheumatic pain in joints and muscles ^{22Reference 22British Herbal Medicine Association · 1983British Herbal Pharmacopoeia}.

In 1608 the herbalist Rembertus Dodonaeus, citing Galen, described juniper berries as a remedy to “clean the kidneys” ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. Later European texts also used them for indigestion, gout, irritating coughs and painful menstruation ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

The German Commission E accepted only indigestion as an indication ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. The European herbal committee now recognises two traditional uses: increasing urine flow to flush the urinary tract in minor urinary complaints, and relief of indigestion and wind ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Ceremonial Use

Juniper was burned by the ancient Greeks against epidemics, and it is burned ceremonially in Tibetan and Native American practice ^{21Reference 21Battaglia · 2003The complete guide to aromatherapy (2nd ed.)}.

Indications

Minor urinary complaints, to increase urine flow [berry; European traditional use]
Cystitis [berry; British herbal tradition] Caution: The European herbal committee regards the urinary-antiseptic use as disputed, and the berry’s action as mainly an increase in urine flow ²⁵.
Indigestion and wind [berry; European traditional use]
Fluid retention [berry; British herbal tradition]
Rheumatism and gout [berry; traditional use]
Joint and muscle pain [oil; topical]
Memory decline [inhaled oil; research only] Caution: Tested only as an inhaled oil in rats given amyloid-beta ¹⁵.

Botany

Common juniper is an evergreen conifer of the cypress family (Cupressaceae). It is usually a multistemmed shrub up to 4 m tall, often low and spreading, and sometimes a small tree of 10–12 m ^{26,27Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →Reference 27Adams RP · 1993Juniperus communis Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}. Its grey-brown bark peels in thin strips ^{26,27Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →Reference 27Adams RP · 1993Juniperus communis Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

The leaves are stiff, sharp-pointed needles, 4–25 mm long, set in whorls of three. Each has a single pale, waxy band of stomata along its upper face, bordered by green ^{26Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →}.

Male and female cones grow on separate plants, so only female plants bear “berries” ^{27Reference 27Adams RP · 1993Juniperus communis Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

The berries are seed cones whose scales fuse into a soft, fleshy ball 4–13 mm across. They take about 18 months to two years to ripen, turning bluish-black with a pale waxy bloom, and hold one to three seeds ^{26,27Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →Reference 27Adams RP · 1993Juniperus communis Linnaeus — species description — floraView study →}.

Juniperus communis is a variable species with many named varieties, and most of the differences between them follow habitat and climate ^{26Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →}.

Distribution

Common juniper grows across temperate Eurasia and North America north of Mexico, from Iceland, Greenland and Canada to Japan and Korea, and in North Africa ^{25,26Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →}.

It occupies an extraordinary range of habitats and is hardy to between about −35 and −40 °C ^{26Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →}. The species is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List ^{26Reference 26Earle CJ · 2026Juniperus communis (common juniper) — description, distribution and ecology — species databaseView study →}.

Growing Conditions

Cultivation snapshot for Juniper

LifeperennialZoneUSDA 2–7

Prefers full sun and open, exposed positions; it naturally grows on heaths, rocky slopes and thin ground.
Extremely cold-hardy (roughly USDA zones 2–7) and tolerant of wind, drought and poor soils.
Needs sharply drained soil; dislikes wet, heavy or waterlogged ground.
Dioecious — a female plant sets its berry-like cones only if a male is nearby, and cones take about 18 months to ripen.

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Harvesting, Collection & Preparation

Juniper berries yield 2.2% volatile oil by hydrodistillation, 5.3% by hexane extraction and 1.0% by supercritical CO₂ extraction ^{23Reference 23Damjanović et al. · 2003A comparison between the oil, hexane extract and supercritical carbon dioxide extract of Juniperus communis LView study →}.

The distilled oil is richer in the monoterpenes α-pinene, sabinene and myrcene. The solvent extracts, especially the hexane extract, carry more of the less volatile compounds ^{23Reference 23Damjanović et al. · 2003A comparison between the oil, hexane extract and supercritical carbon dioxide extract of Juniperus communis LView study →}.

Pharmacology & Research

Common juniper’s research sits almost entirely in laboratory and animal studies: dozens of assays on the berry oil and polyphenol-rich extracts, a smaller set of rodent studies, and no completed human trial for any indication ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

The best-replicated findings are antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects have been shown in rodents as well as in cell lines ^{5,8,10,11Reference 5Fierașcu et al. · 2018AnimalGenoprotective, antioxidant, antifungal and anti-inflammatory evaluation of hydroalcoholic extract of wild-growing Juniperus communis L. — animal modelView study →Reference 8Lin et al. · 2022AnimalJuniperus communis extract ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury through the AMPK pathway — animal modelView study →Reference 10Huang et al. · 2022In vitroEvaluation of anticancer effects of Juniperus communis extract on hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo — animal modelView study →Reference 11Tsai et al. · 2018AnimalJuniperus communis extract exerts antitumor effects in human glioblastomas through the blood-brain barrier — animal modelView study →}.

What the Evidence Supports

Best-supported: antioxidant radical-scavenging and enzyme-restoring activity, replicated in vitro and in cholesterol-fed and inflammation rat models ^{1,2,6,7Reference 1Höferl et al. · 2014In vitroChemical composition and antioxidant properties of juniper berry (Juniperus communis L.) essential oil — in vitroView study →Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →Reference 6Gumral et al. · 2015AnimalJuniperus communis Linn oil decreases oxidative stress and increases antioxidant enzymes in the heart of rats administered a cholesterol-rich diet — animal modelView study →Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →}; broad antimicrobial activity of the berry oil, strongest against Candida and dermatophytes ^{9Reference 9Pepeljnjak et al. · 2006In vitroAntimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil (Juniperus communis L., Cupressaceae) — in vitroView study →}.
Emerging, worth watching: anti-inflammatory NF-κB suppression in vivo ^{7,8Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →Reference 8Lin et al. · 2022AnimalJuniperus communis extract ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury through the AMPK pathway — animal modelView study →} and antiproliferative effects seen across several cancer cell lines with two supporting rodent studies ^{10,11Reference 10Huang et al. · 2022In vitroEvaluation of anticancer effects of Juniperus communis extract on hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo — animal modelView study →Reference 11Tsai et al. · 2018AnimalJuniperus communis extract exerts antitumor effects in human glioblastomas through the blood-brain barrier — animal modelView study →}.
Mechanistically thin: the nootropic claim rests on inhaled volatile oil in one rat amyloid model — a preparation (aromatherapy inhalation) unlike how the berry is normally taken ^{15Reference 15Cioancă et al. · 2016AnimalAnti-acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activities of inhaled juniper oil on amyloid beta (1-42)-induced oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus — animal modelView study →}.
The caveat: essential-oil composition varies widely (the European Pharmacopoeia allows α-pinene 20–50% and terpinen-4-ol 0.5–10%) ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}, and there is no human efficacy data to anchor a dose.

Extract type decides the result. The essential oil, the whole-berry decoction and polyphenol-rich solvent fractions contain different compounds, and several studies used the needles or leaves rather than the berry ^{2,4,7Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →Reference 4Ved et al. · 2017AnimalAntioxidant and hepatoprotective potential of phenol-rich fraction of Juniperus communis Linn. leaves — animal modelView study →Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →}.

Evidence by IndicationStrength of support

AntioxidantPromising

72%

AntimicrobialPromising

68%

Anti-InflammatoryPromising

64%

HepatoprotectivePromising

56%

AnticancerPromising

52%

AntidiabeticPromising

50%

Nootropic (Anti-AChE)Promising

46%

DiureticShaky

38%

1. Antioxidant

Antioxidant activity is juniper’s most consistently documented property. A Bulgarian berry oil scavenged DPPH, ABTS, hydroxyl and superoxide radicals and chelated iron in vitro, but inhibited lipid peroxidation less well than the reference antioxidant BHT. In yeast cells it raised the activity of the antioxidant enzymes SOD, catalase and glutathione peroxidase ^{1Reference 1Höferl et al. · 2014In vitroChemical composition and antioxidant properties of juniper berry (Juniperus communis L.) essential oil — in vitroView study →}.

Polyphenol-rich fractions of the berry carry strong radical-scavenging activity. The ethyl-acetate fraction had the highest phenolic content and was rich in hyperoside, while the butanol fraction carried more rutin ^{2Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →}.

The effect also appears in vivo. Juniper oil at 200 mg/kg restored superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase in the hearts of cholesterol-fed rats ^{6Reference 6Gumral et al. · 2015AnimalJuniperus communis Linn oil decreases oxidative stress and increases antioxidant enzymes in the heart of rats administered a cholesterol-rich diet — animal modelView study →}. A needle extract lowered malondialdehyde, protein-oxidation and DNA-oxidation markers in rats with acute inflammation ^{7Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →}.

No human biomarker study exists.

2. Antimicrobial

The berry oil shows broad but moderate activity. Against sixteen bacteria, ten yeasts and yeast-like fungi, and four dermatophytes, it was similarly bactericidal to Gram-positive and Gram-negative species (MIC 8–70% v/v). It was a stronger fungicide, most active against Candida species (MIC 0.78–2% v/v) and dermatophytes (MIC 0.39–2% v/v) ^{9Reference 9Pepeljnjak et al. · 2006In vitroAntimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil (Juniperus communis L., Cupressaceae) — in vitroView study →}.

Solvent fractions of the berry have weak-to-moderate antibacterial activity, especially against Streptococcus pyogenes ^{2Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →}. Reviews list antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity among the berry’s documented experimental effects ^{18,19Reference 18Raina et al. · 2019ReviewPotential of Juniperus communis L as a nutraceutical in human and veterinary medicine — reviewView study →Reference 19Gonçalves et al. · 2022ReviewZimbro (Juniperus communis L.) as a promising source of bioactive compounds and biomedical activities — reviewView study →}.

Gap: all data are in vitro MICs; the concentrations that inhibit microbes in a dish are far above what a diuretic dose or culinary use delivers to urine or tissue, and there is no clinical infection study.

3. Anti-Inflammatory

A hydroalcoholic extract of wild Romanian juniper, given by mouth as a microemulsion, reduced dextran- and kaolin-induced paw edema in rats, more strongly in the acute dextran model. Diclofenac sodium was the reference drug ^{5Reference 5Fierașcu et al. · 2018AnimalGenoprotective, antioxidant, antifungal and anti-inflammatory evaluation of hydroalcoholic extract of wild-growing Juniperus communis L. — animal modelView study →}.

In a comparison of five Turkish Juniperus taxa in mice, methanolic fruit and leaf extracts of J. communis var. saxatilis reduced carrageenan-induced edema at 100 mg/kg, while the extracts of var. communis were inactive ^{16Reference 16Akkol et al. · 2009AnimalA comparative study on the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of five Juniperus taxa — animal modelView study →}.

An ethanolic needle extract reduced turpentine-oil-induced acute inflammation in rats, lowering NF-κB activity and interleukin-1β and -18 ^{7Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →}.

In rats with LPS-induced acute kidney injury, a J. communis extract improved survival and reduced kidney injury. In kidney cells it suppressed NF-κB and activated AMPK and the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant pathway ^{8Reference 8Lin et al. · 2022AnimalJuniperus communis extract ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury through the AMPK pathway — animal modelView study →}.

The results are preclinical, and the extract differs between studies (berry, needle, or not stated), with no dose-ranging or human data.

4. Hepatoprotective

A phenol-rich ethyl-acetate fraction of J. communis leaves protected rat livers against paracetamol-induced damage, lowering serum aspartate and alanine aminotransferases, bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase. The same fraction scavenged DPPH (IC50 177 µg/mL, against 138 µg/mL for BHT) and chelated iron ^{4Reference 4Ved et al. · 2017AnimalAntioxidant and hepatoprotective potential of phenol-rich fraction of Juniperus communis Linn. leaves — animal modelView study →}.

Gap: a single in vivo model using a leaf fraction, not the berry.

5. Anticancer

A J. communis extract arrested hepatocellular carcinoma cells in the G0/G1 phase and triggered apoptosis. In an animal model it suppressed tumour growth and extended survival with little or no toxicity ^{10Reference 10Huang et al. · 2022In vitroEvaluation of anticancer effects of Juniperus communis extract on hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo — animal modelView study →}.

Berry essential oil triggered intrinsic-pathway apoptosis in cervical (HeLa) and colorectal (HCT 116) cancer cells, with a higher Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, cleaved caspase-3 and cytochrome-c release, and arrested HeLa cells in the S phase ^{12Reference 12Marković et al. · 2024In vitroInsights into molecular mechanisms of anticancer activity of Juniperus communis essential oil in HeLa and HCT 116 cells — in vitroView study →}.

A berry extract given by injection reduced glioma growth in rats and crossed the blood-brain barrier. It was more toxic to glioma cells (IC50 49–69 µg/mL) than to normal cells (76–108 µg/mL) ^{11Reference 11Tsai et al. · 2018AnimalJuniperus communis extract exerts antitumor effects in human glioblastomas through the blood-brain barrier — animal modelView study →}.

The oil and post-distillation waste of var. saxatilis acted synergistically with doxorubicin against lung carcinoma cells ^{13Reference 13Vasilijević et al. · 2018In vitroChemical characterization, antioxidant, genotoxic and in vitro cytotoxic activity assessment of Juniperus communis var. saxatilis — in vitroView study →}, and the ethyl-acetate fraction of the berry was more toxic to melanoma cells than to skin keratinocytes ^{2Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →}.

The active concentrations are extract doses, far above what culinary or tea use delivers.

6. Antidiabetic

A decoction of juniper berries lowered blood glucose in normal rats at 250 mg/kg. In streptozotocin-diabetic rats, 125 mg/kg of berries daily for 24 days reduced blood glucose and mortality and prevented weight loss. The authors attributed the effect to increased peripheral glucose uptake and enhanced glucose-induced insulin secretion ^{14Reference 14Sánchez de Medina et al. · 1994AnimalHypoglycemic activity of juniper “berries” — animal modelView study →}.

Reviews list hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects among the berry’s documented experimental activities ^{18,19Reference 18Raina et al. · 2019ReviewPotential of Juniperus communis L as a nutraceutical in human and veterinary medicine — reviewView study →Reference 19Gonçalves et al. · 2022ReviewZimbro (Juniperus communis L.) as a promising source of bioactive compounds and biomedical activities — reviewView study →}.

Gap: the core evidence is a single 1994 animal study, not independently replicated, and there is no human glycemic trial. The preparation, a water decoction, is close to the traditional tea.

7. Nootropic (Anti-AChE)

Rats given amyloid-beta (1–42) into the brain were exposed to inhaled J. communis oil (1% or 3%) for 60 minutes a day for 21 days. The oil lowered acetylcholinesterase activity and oxidative damage in the hippocampus ^{15Reference 15Cioancă et al. · 2016AnimalAnti-acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activities of inhaled juniper oil on amyloid beta (1-42)-induced oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus — animal modelView study →}.

A screen of fruit extracts from six Turkish Juniperus species found the strongest anticholinesterase activity in J. oxycedrus and J. foetidissima ^{3Reference 3Öztürk et al. · 2011In vitroEvaluation of fruit extracts of six Turkish Juniperus species for their antioxidant, anticholinesterase and antimicrobial activities — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: the active preparation is inhaled essential oil, not the ingested berry; there is no human cognitive data, and the in vivo findings come from a single research group.

8. Diuretic

Increasing urine flow is juniper’s oldest documented use, and it is the use the European herbal committee recognises ^{24,25Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. A diuretic substance was isolated from juniper in 1957 ^{17Reference 17Janků et al. · 1957Diuretic substance from juniper (Juniperus communis L.)View study →}.

In rats, a 10% berry infusion first reduced urine output, then increased it on the second and third daily doses, more strongly than juniper oil or terpinen-4-ol alone. Several studies also found more chloride excreted. The committee concluded that the effect is not purely an increase in water loss and cannot be attributed to the oil or terpinen-4-ol alone ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

Older warnings that juniper irritates the kidneys trace back to 19th-century texts that probably copied findings for turpentine oil. Later biochemical and histological work did not find kidney damage from juniper oil or terpinen-4-ol ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

Gap: there is no modern controlled human diuresis study.

Mechanisms

The berry’s monoterpenes, led by α-pinene, sabinene and terpinen-4-ol, have been studied for antimicrobial activity, and terpinen-4-ol for its effect on urine output in rats ^{9,25Reference 9Pepeljnjak et al. · 2006In vitroAntimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil (Juniperus communis L., Cupressaceae) — in vitroView study →Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. The polyphenols, including quercetin, hyperoside and rutin, carry much of the antioxidant activity and are largely absent from the distilled oil ^{2,7Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →}.

Extracts have also been studied for suppressing NF-κB and activating the AMPK and Nrf2 pathways in inflammation models, and for triggering apoptosis in cancer cells ^{8,10,12Reference 8Lin et al. · 2022AnimalJuniperus communis extract ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury through the AMPK pathway — animal modelView study →Reference 10Huang et al. · 2022In vitroEvaluation of anticancer effects of Juniperus communis extract on hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo — animal modelView study →Reference 12Marković et al. · 2024In vitroInsights into molecular mechanisms of anticancer activity of Juniperus communis essential oil in HeLa and HCT 116 cells — in vitroView study →}.

Mechanism	Drives	Key compounds
Radical scavenging + metal chelation; SOD/GSH-Px/CAT restoration	antioxidanthepatoprotectivecardioprotective	alpha-pinene, quercetin, hyperoside
NF-κB ↓, AMPK ↑, Nrf2/HO-1 ↑	anti-inflammatoryhepatoprotective	polyphenol fraction, terpinen-4-ol
Intrinsic apoptosis (Bax/Bcl-2 ↑, caspase-3 ↑), cell-cycle arrest, MMP2/9 ↓	anticancer	berry essential oil, ethyl-acetate polyphenols
Acetylcholinesterase inhibition + hippocampal antioxidant protection	nootropic (anti-AChE)	volatile oil (inhaled)
Increased urine output (water and chloride)	diuretic	whole-berry infusion, terpinen-4-ol
Membrane disruption of microbes/fungi	antimicrobial	sabinene, alpha-pinene, terpinen-4-ol

Clinical Trials

No registered clinical trials of Juniperus communis for any medicinal indication were identified. The only ClinicalTrials.gov records naming a juniper concern Juniperus oxycedrus pollen-allergen immunotherapy and unrelated protocols.

Completed	Planned	Terminated	Preclinical
0	0	0	~40+

Last checked: July 2026.

Phytochemistry

Juniper berries contain at least 10 mL/kg of essential oil and about 30% sugars, mainly glucose and fructose ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. The European Pharmacopoeia sets the oil’s composition at 20–50% α-pinene, up to 20% sabinene, 1–12% β-pinene, 1–35% myrcene, 2–12% limonene and 0.5–10% terpinen-4-ol ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

Individual oils vary within that range. A Bulgarian berry oil contained 51% α-pinene, 8% myrcene and 6% sabinene ^{1Reference 1Höferl et al. · 2014In vitroChemical composition and antioxidant properties of juniper berry (Juniperus communis L.) essential oil — in vitroView study →}. Another contained 29% α-pinene, 18% β-pinene and 14% sabinene ^{9Reference 9Pepeljnjak et al. · 2006In vitroAntimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil (Juniperus communis L., Cupressaceae) — in vitroView study →}.

Solvent extracts carry more of the less volatile compounds than the distilled oil does, especially hexane extracts ^{23Reference 23Damjanović et al. · 2003A comparison between the oil, hexane extract and supercritical carbon dioxide extract of Juniperus communis LView study →}. The berries also contain tannins, flavonoids and diterpene acids ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

The polyphenols sit mainly outside the oil. An ethyl-acetate fraction of the berry was rich in hyperoside, and a butanol fraction in rutin ^{2Reference 2Jojić et al. · 2026In vitroFraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitroView study →}. Needle extracts are dominated by quercetin derivatives and taxifolin ^{7Reference 7Bolunduț et al. · 2026AnimalJuniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal modelView study →}. The post-distillation waste of var. saxatilis was richest in rutin (12.2 mg/g) and quinic acid (11.1 mg/g) ^{13Reference 13Vasilijević et al. · 2018In vitroChemical characterization, antioxidant, genotoxic and in vitro cytotoxic activity assessment of Juniperus communis var. saxatilis — in vitroView study →}.

Findings for the oil, for polyphenol-rich fractions and for needle or leaf extracts should be read separately from one another and from those for the whole berry.

Constituent Summary

Oil figures are the European Pharmacopoeia’s ranges for juniper oil ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}.

Grouped by class · 15 compounds

Monoterpene7 compounds7 with data

MonoterpeneAlpha-pinene20–50% of oil

MonoterpeneBeta-pinene1–12% of oil

MonoterpeneMyrcene1–35% of oil

MonoterpeneSabineneup to 20% of oil

MonoterpeneLimonene2–12% of oil

MonoterpeneTerpinen-4-ol0.5–10% of oil

MonoterpeneTerpene hydrocarbonsbulk of oil

Other1 compound1 with data

OtherVolatile oilat least 10 mL/kg of berry

Flavonoid4 compounds4 with data

FlavonoidQuercetinNo Data (needle)

FlavonoidHyperosideNo Data (berry fraction)

FlavonoidRutin12.2 mg/g of distillation waste (var. saxatilis)

FlavonoidTaxifolinNo Data (needle)

Organic Acid1 compound1 with data

Organic AcidQuinic acid11.1 mg/g of distillation waste (var. saxatilis)

Lipid2 compounds2 with data

LipidHexadecanoic acidNo Data (solvent extracts)

LipidParaffinic acidsNo Data (solvent extracts)

Dosage

Juniper is taken as a short course, as an infusion of the crushed berries or as a tincture.

Research Doses

Indication	Preparation	Dose	Est. dried-herb equivalent	Source
Antidiabetic	Aqueous berry decoction (rat)	125–250 mg berries/kg	~9–17 g/day for 70 kg (direct scale-up, not a recommended dose)	^{14Reference 14Sánchez de Medina et al. · 1994AnimalHypoglycemic activity of juniper “berries” — animal modelView study →}
Antioxidant (cardiac)	Berry oil in rats	50–200 mg/kg oil	oil, not whole herb	^{6Reference 6Gumral et al. · 2015AnimalJuniperus communis Linn oil decreases oxidative stress and increases antioxidant enzymes in the heart of rats administered a cholesterol-rich diet — animal modelView study →}
Nootropic (anti-AChE)	Inhaled volatile oil (rat)	1–3% oil, 60 min/day	inhalation, no oral equivalent	^{15Reference 15Cioancă et al. · 2016AnimalAnti-acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activities of inhaled juniper oil on amyloid beta (1-42)-induced oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus — animal modelView study →}

Traditional Dosage

System	Preparation	Dose
European traditional use (HMPC)	Crushed berries, infusion (2–2.5 g in 150 mL boiling water)	1–3 times daily for urinary use (2.5–6 g/day); up to 4 times daily for digestion (up to 10 g/day)
European traditional use (HMPC)	Liquid extract 1:1 (25% ethanol)	2–4 mL three times daily
European traditional use (HMPC)	Tincture 1:5 (45% ethanol)	1–2 mL three times daily

These doses are for adults. Drink plenty of fluids while taking juniper, and see a practitioner if symptoms last more than two weeks ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Safety & Pregnancy

Juniper berry is a traditional short-course remedy. The European herbal committee lists no known side effects at traditional doses, but does not recommend it in severe kidney disease, in pregnancy or breastfeeding, or for anyone under 18 ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Safety at a Glance

Low / no toxicity

Avoid in pregnancy. Safety in pregnancy is not established, and berry extracts reduced implantation in rats.
Kidney disease. Not recommended in severe kidney disease, including kidney infection and inflammation.
Short courses. See a practitioner if symptoms last more than two weeks, or if fever, painful urination, spasms or blood in the urine appear.
Possible CYP3A4 interaction. A berry decoction inhibited CYP3A4 in a laboratory test.
Blood sugar. A berry decoction lowered blood sugar in rats, so it may add to the effect of diabetes medicines.
Use true juniper only. Savin (Juniperus sabina) is a dangerous lookalike.
No known side effects at traditional doses. The European herbal committee lists none.

Full Safety & Interactions Detail

Kidneys. Juniper is not recommended in severe kidney disease, including infectious interstitial nephritis, pyelitis and pyelonephritis ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}. Fever, painful urination, spasms or blood in the urine during use call for medical advice ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Fluids. Juniper works by increasing urine flow, so plenty of fluid is needed during use, and it is not recommended where a doctor has advised restricting fluids ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Children. Use under 18 is not recommended, because there is not enough data ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

Interactions. A juniper-berry decoction inhibited CYP3A4 in a laboratory test, almost completely after 60 minutes of boiling, so it may affect drugs cleared by that enzyme ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. A decoction also lowered blood sugar in rats, which could add to the effect of diabetes medicines ^{14Reference 14Sánchez de Medina et al. · 1994AnimalHypoglycemic activity of juniper “berries” — animal modelView study →}.

Toxicity data. There is no serious concern about acute toxicity, and there are no genotoxicity, carcinogenicity or repeat-dose studies ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. A 2001 cosmetic-ingredient safety review found the data insufficient to support the safety of juniper extracts in cosmetics ^{20Reference 20CIR Expert Panel · 2001ReviewFinal report on the safety assessment of Juniperus communis extract, J. oxycedrus extract/tar, J. phoenicea extract, and J. virginiana extract — safety reviewView study →}.

Savin. Savin (Juniperus sabina) is an occasional adulterant of juniper berries ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. It was historically used as an abortifacient and is highly dangerous ^{29Reference 29Dickson JH et al. · 1987Mark Jameson’s physic plants, a sixteenth century garden for gynaecology in Glasgow? — historicalView study →}, and its essential oil is one of the plant oils known to cause seizures ^{28Reference 28Burkhard PR et al. · 1999Case reportPlant-induced seizures: reappearance of an old problem — case reports and literature surveyView study →}. Only Juniperus communis berries are used.

Pregnancy & Lactation

Avoid in pregnancy Avoid while breastfeeding

Avoid. The European herbal committee does not recommend juniper in pregnancy or while breastfeeding, because its safety has not been established ^{24Reference 24Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products ( · 2023ReviewEuropean Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monographView study →}.

In rats, berry extracts given early in pregnancy prevented implantation in many animals, though the committee judged these studies too limited to prove an effect ^{25Reference 25Laekeman G (rapporteur) · 2023Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessmentView study →}. A cosmetic-ingredient safety review also noted that juniper extract affected fertility and was abortifacient in rats ^{20Reference 20CIR Expert Panel · 2001ReviewFinal report on the safety assessment of Juniperus communis extract, J. oxycedrus extract/tar, J. phoenicea extract, and J. virginiana extract — safety reviewView study →}.

References

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Jojić, A. A., et al. (2026). Fraction-dependent polyphenolic profile and biological activities of Juniperus communis pseudo-fruit extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial and selective antimelanoma effects — in vitro. Antioxidants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42352044/
Öztürk, M., Tümen, İ., Uğur, A., et al. (2011). Evaluation of fruit extracts of six Turkish Juniperus species for their antioxidant, anticholinesterase and antimicrobial activities — in vitro. J Sci Food Agric. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21384354/
Ved, A., et al. (2017). Antioxidant and hepatoprotective potential of phenol-rich fraction of Juniperus communis Linn. leaves — animal model. Pharmacognosy Magazine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28216892/
Fierașcu, I., et al. (2018). Genoprotective, antioxidant, antifungal and anti-inflammatory evaluation of hydroalcoholic extract of wild-growing Juniperus communis L. — animal model. BMC Complement Altern Med. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29301523/
Gumral, N., et al. (2015). Juniperus communis Linn oil decreases oxidative stress and increases antioxidant enzymes in the heart of rats administered a cholesterol-rich diet — animal model. Toxicol Ind Health. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23293127/
Bolunduț, D., et al. (2026). Juniperus communis L. needle extract modulates oxidative and inflammatory pathways in an experimental model of acute inflammation — animal model. Molecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41599297/
Lin, T. C., et al. (2022). Juniperus communis extract ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury through the AMPK pathway — animal model. Food Sci Nutr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36249972/
Pepeljnjak, S., Kosalec, I., Kalođera, Z., Blažević, N. (2006). Antimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil (Juniperus communis L., Cupressaceae) — in vitro. Acta Pharm (Zagreb). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16375831/
Huang, N. C., et al. (2022). Evaluation of anticancer effects of Juniperus communis extract on hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo — animal model. Biosci Rep. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34151367/
Tsai, N. M., et al. (2018). Juniperus communis extract exerts antitumor effects in human glioblastomas through the blood-brain barrier — animal model. Cell Physiol Biochem. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30261501/
Marković, T., et al. (2024). Insights into molecular mechanisms of anticancer activity of Juniperus communis essential oil in HeLa and HCT 116 cells — in vitro. Plants (Basel). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39273835/
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Cioancă, O., Hancianu, M., Mihasan, M., Hritcu, L. (2016). Anti-acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activities of inhaled juniper oil on amyloid beta (1-42)-induced oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus — animal model. Neurochem Res. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25743585/
Akkol, E. K., Güvenç, A., Yesilada, E. (2009). A comparative study on the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of five Juniperus taxa — animal model. J Ethnopharmacol. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19505566/
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Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) (2023). European Union herbal monograph on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241320/2021) — regulatory monograph. European Medicines Agency. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-monograph/final-european-union-herbal-monograph-juniperus-communis-l-pseudo-fructus-galbulus-revision-1_en.pdf
Laekeman G (rapporteur) (2023). Assessment report on Juniperus communis L., galbulus (pseudo-fructus), Final – Revision 1 (EMA/HMPC/241319/2021) — regulatory assessment. European Medicines Agency. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-juniperus-communis-l-pseudo-fructus-galbulus-revision-1_en.pdf
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