Chaga

What Is Chaga?

Chaga is a fungus that forms hard, black, charcoal-like growths on the trunks of living birch trees. The growth is brewed into a dark tea, used in Siberian and Russian folk medicine for stomach complaints and as a general tonic ^{34,35Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →Reference 35Prakofjewa et al. · 2024Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/View study →}.

Inonotus obliquus grows in cold regions of North America, northern and central Europe, and Asia ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}. The black mass that is harvested is a sterile conk. The fungus’s spore-bearing stage forms only under the bark, after the tree has died ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}.

The conk contains a water-soluble melanin complex, polysaccharides, polyphenols and lanostane triterpenes such as inotodiol, along with betulin and betulinic acid, which also occur in birch bark ^{4,25,32,38,39Reference 4Wold et al. · 2024In vitroFungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity — in vitro (mouse and human macrophages)View study →Reference 25Glamočlija et al. · 2015In vitroChemical characterization and biological activity of Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a medicinal “mushroom” — analytical / in vitro (organic and phenolic acids, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; samples from Finland, Russia and Thailand)View study →Reference 32Babitskaya et al. · 2000Melanin complex of the fungus Inonotus obliquus — analytical study (water-soluble melanin complex)Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}. Laboratory and animal studies have explored its antioxidant, immune, anti-inflammatory, blood-sugar and anticancer activity, but no controlled human trial of chaga has been published.

Chaga is also called cinder conk and birch canker polypore. In Finland it is pakuri, and in Japan kabanoanatake ^{34,35Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →Reference 35Prakofjewa et al. · 2024Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/View study →}.

How Is Chaga Used?

• Tea or decoction — the chopped or grated conk simmered in water, the traditional preparation ^{34,35Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →Reference 35Prakofjewa et al. · 2024Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/View study →}.
• Tincture — the conk infused in alcohol and taken in small amounts ^{35Reference 35Prakofjewa et al. · 2024Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/View study →}.
• Powder and capsules — ground conk or extracts. The published cases of kidney injury followed long-term daily use of chaga powder ^{26,27,28Reference 26Kwon et al. · 2022Case reportChaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy manifesting as nephrotic syndrome: a case reportView study →Reference 27Lee et al. · 2020Case reportDevelopment of end-stage renal disease after long-term ingestion of Chaga mushroom: case report and review of literature — case report (3 g/day of powder for four years, then 9 g/day for one year)View study →Reference 28Kikuchi et al. · 2014Case reportChaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy — case reportView study →}.
• Smoke and “soap water” — the Khanty smoked the conk, and stirred charred conk into boiling water to make a wash ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

Traditional Uses

Khanty Folk Medicine

The Khanty of Western Siberia used chaga as a medicine, and their use is recorded in ethnographic studies ^{33,34Reference 33Saar · 1991Fungi in Khanty folk medicine — ethnomycologyView study →Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}. They drank it as a tea for intestinal worms, tuberculosis, stomach disease, and heart and liver disease ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

They also burned it. The smoke was used against disease. Charred conk stirred into boiling water made a black “soap water”, used for washing the body and for cleansing after menstruation and childbirth ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

Russian and Eastern European Folk Medicine

In Siberia, chaga was taken for tuberculosis, liver conditions and stomach diseases, including gastritis and ulcers ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}. Hunters and foragers in Russia take it to build stamina and capacity for work ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

A 2024 field study across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union recorded chaga use in five countries. People drank it as a decoction for stomach and intestinal complaints, for cancer and as a general remedy, or infused it in alcohol and took it in small amounts ^{35Reference 35Prakofjewa et al. · 2024Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/View study →}. The study found that this use had been promoted by Soviet-era herbals ^{35Reference 35Prakofjewa et al. · 2024Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/View study →}.

A chaga preparation, Befungin, entered clinical use in Russia ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}. Finnish soldiers drank chaga tea in place of coffee during the Second World War ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

East Asia

In China and South Korea, chaga is prepared by heating and crushing it in water ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}. In Japan it has a folk history of use for ulcers, gastritis and tuberculosis ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

North American Indigenous Use

Indigenous peoples of northern North America drink chaga as a tea, take it as a powder, inhale it and smoke it. Cree healers call it posahkan and wiskakecak ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

The Métis use chaga for cancers and for diabetes, and in Alaska it is used for toothache ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

Harvesting, Collection & Preparation

Chaga is cut from the trunk of the host tree with a saw or chisel. Harvesters take care not to damage the tree underneath or to remove all of the fungus.

Chaga is very tough and hard to break into small pieces, so it is often bought pre-ground or chopped. Large pieces can be cut with a band saw, and smaller chunks can be put in a bag and broken up with a hammer.

The pieces are simmered in water for 10–15 minutes to make a dark, mildly bitter tea.

Mycology

Chaga is the fungus Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát, an accepted species in the family Hymenochaetaceae ^{37Reference 37Species Fungorum (Royal Botanic Gardens · 1942Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát 1942 — accepted name and synonymyView study →}. It is a parasite of living birch, including paper birch and yellow birch, and it has also been found on alder ^{36,38Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →}. It causes a white rot in the wood, and after the tree dies it lives on as a decomposer ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}.

The part that is harvested is a sclerotium, a sterile mass of fungal tissue that erupts through the bark ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}. It can grow to 30 cm across and 30 cm high ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}. Its surface is black, hard and cracked into charcoal-like cubes, and its flesh is tough, woody and bright orange-brown ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}. The black colour comes from melanin ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

The spore-bearing stage forms after the tree has died, under the bark, as a spreading patch of pores that is whitish at first and then brown ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}. Because it grows under the bark, it is rarely seen ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}.

The sterile conk was once described as a separate form, Fomes igniarius f. sterilis. It is now treated as part of Inonotus obliquus ^{37Reference 37Species Fungorum (Royal Botanic Gardens · 1942Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát 1942 — accepted name and synonymyView study →}.

Distribution

Chaga grows in cool regions of the Northern Hemisphere, from mountain forests to the subarctic ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}. It is found in Canada and the United States at about 45–50°N, in Russia, Kazakhstan, South Korea and Japan, and in central and northern Europe. It is rare in western and southern Europe ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}.

In North America it grows throughout the range of its birch hosts ^{36Reference 36Kuo · 2020Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage)View study →}. In Estonia it grows on birch and also on grey and black alder ^{38Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →}.

Sourcing: chaga products are almost all made from conks collected in the wild ^{40Reference 40Thomas et al. · 2020ReviewChaga (Inonotus obliquus): a medical marvel but a conservation dilemma? — review (commercial harvesting, conservation, cultivation)View study →}. The fungus grows slowly inside its host, for an estimated 10 to 80 years or more, and the conk is taken before the fungus has produced spores. Heavy collection could therefore threaten wild populations, and the effect of harvesting has not been studied ^{40Reference 40Thomas et al. · 2020ReviewChaga (Inonotus obliquus): a medical marvel but a conservation dilemma? — review (commercial harvesting, conservation, cultivation)View study →}.

Mycelium grown in culture is easy to produce, but it lacks some compounds of the wild conk, including the betulin and betulinic acid that come from the birch host ^{40Reference 40Thomas et al. · 2020ReviewChaga (Inonotus obliquus): a medical marvel but a conservation dilemma? — review (commercial harvesting, conservation, cultivation)View study →}.

Cultivation

Cultivation snapshot for Chaga

Sourcewild-harvested, not farmedHostliving birch (Betula)Easedifficult; almost no conk is grown commercially

• Chaga is almost entirely wild-harvested from living birch trees rather than farmed.
• Growing the conk itself means inoculating living trees. In one trial, birches inoculated with cultured mycelium produced harvestable chaga after three years ^{40Reference 40Thomas et al. · 2020ReviewChaga (Inonotus obliquus): a medical marvel but a conservation dilemma? — review (commercial harvesting, conservation, cultivation)View study →}.
• It does not fruit well in artificial culture, and lab-grown mycelium does not reproduce the chemistry of the wild birch-grown conk.
• Because it grows so slowly and demand is high, over-harvesting is a real concern — sustainable practice leaves part of the conk to regrow and avoids stripping trees bare.

Grow it yourself

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Indications

• Stomach complaints, gastritis and ulcers [conk tea; Siberian, Russian and Japanese folk use]
• Tuberculosis [conk tea; Khanty and Siberian folk use]
• Liver disease [conk tea; Khanty and Siberian folk use]
• Heart disease [conk tea; Khanty folk use]
• Intestinal worms [conk tea; Khanty folk use]
• Cancer [conk tea and tincture; Russian and Métis folk use] ⚠Caution: The anticancer research is in cell cultures and animals. Inotodiol, betulin and betulinic acid, the compounds most often cited, were below detection in a chaga infusion and decoction ³⁹.
• Diabetes [conk; Métis folk use] ⚠Caution: Blood-sugar effects have been shown only in rodents, mostly with isolated fractions or culture broth ^9,10,12.
• High blood lipids [conk extract] ⚠Caution: Shown only in rodents ^9,13,14.
• Stamina and general health [conk tea; Russian folk use]
• Washing and cleansing [charred conk in water; Khanty use]

Pharmacology & Research

Chaga has a large laboratory literature of cell-free antioxidant assays, immune-cell cultures and rodent models. No randomised controlled trial of a chaga preparation in people has been published, and the registered human studies test chaga inside multi-ingredient products.

Much of the mechanistic research uses polysaccharides or fractions from submerged-culture mycelium rather than the wild conk ^{3,9Reference 3Kim et al. · 2005In vitroImmuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide from submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus — in vitroView study →Reference 9Sun et al. · 2008AnimalAntihyperglycemic and antilipidperoxidative effects of dry matter of culture broth of Inonotus obliquus in alloxan-diabetes mice — animal modelView study →}. The conk’s chemistry also varies with its host and origin. Betulinic acid content differed several-fold between conks on alder and on birch, and chaga from France, Ukraine and Canada differed in betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol ^{38,39Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}.

1. Antioxidant

In an early assay study, four chaga extracts were tested against DPPH, superoxide and peroxyl radicals. The polyphenolic extract had strong activity, the triterpenoid and steroid extract relatively strong activity, and the polysaccharide extract none. Only the polyphenolic extract protected human skin cells against hydrogen-peroxide stress ^{1Reference 1Cui et al. · 2005In vitroAntioxidant effect of Inonotus obliquus — in vitroView study →}.

The black pigment of the conk is a water-soluble melanin complex. It has antioxidant activity and promoted the growth of bifidobacteria in culture ^{2Reference 2Burmasova et al. · 2019In vitroMelanins of Inonotus obliquus: bifidogenic and antioxidant properties — in vitroView study →}.

A hot-water decoction extracts these water-soluble compounds ^{39Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}.

Gap: the evidence is chemical and cell-based. No human oxidative-stress marker has been measured.

2. Immunomodulatory

An endo-polysaccharide from submerged-culture mycelium increased B-cell proliferation and IgM production, and raised nitric oxide, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and iNOS in macrophages. It did not affect T-cell proliferation or Th1 and Th2 cytokines. It was not directly toxic to tumour cells, but had indirect anticancer effects through immune stimulation ^{3Reference 3Kim et al. · 2005In vitroImmuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide from submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus — in vitroView study →}.

In 2024, two water-soluble polysaccharides, AcF1 and AcF3, were shown to be strong agonists of Toll-like receptors 2 and 4. They activated mouse and human macrophages to secrete nitric oxide, TNF-α and IL-6, and, with interferon-γ, IL-12p70. The activated macrophages inhibited cancer cell growth in vitro and in mice. A particulate β-glucan from chaga acted on Dectin-1 instead, and did not trigger these effects ^{4Reference 4Wold et al. · 2024In vitroFungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity — in vitro (mouse and human macrophages)View study →}.

Gap: these results show immune stimulation, not the damping of an overactive response, which matters for people with autoimmune disease or taking immunosuppressants. The findings come from cells and mice.

3. Anti-Inflammatory

A methanol extract reduced carrageenan-induced paw swelling in rats and pain responses in mice. In macrophages it suppressed nitric oxide, PGE2 and TNF-α through NF-κB ^{5Reference 5Park et al. · 2005In vitroIn vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of the methanol extract of Inonotus obliquus — animal modelView study →}.

Chaga lowered TNF-α and STAT1 in mice with dextran-sulfate colitis ^{6Reference 6Choi et al. · 2010AnimalAnti-inflammatory effects of Inonotus obliquus in dextran-sodium-sulfate colitis — mouseView study →}. Lanostane triterpenoids from the conk, the inonotusols, suppressed nitric oxide and iNOS in microglial cells ^{7Reference 7Kou et al. · 2021In vitroAnti-neuroinflammatory polyoxygenated lanostanoids from Chaga mushroom Inonotus obliquus — in vitro (BV-2 microglia)View study →}. An extract limited histamine-induced inflammation in small blood vessels in mice ^{8Reference 8Javed et al. · 2019AnimalInonotus obliquus attenuates histamine-induced microvascular inflammation — animal modelView study →}.

Gap: the work is in rodents and cells, and the doses and extract types vary widely between studies.

4. Antidiabetic & Metabolic

Dried culture broth from submerged-culture chaga lowered blood glucose by about 31% over three weeks in alloxan-diabetic mice, and improved blood lipids ^{9Reference 9Sun et al. · 2008AnimalAntihyperglycemic and antilipidperoxidative effects of dry matter of culture broth of Inonotus obliquus in alloxan-diabetes mice — animal modelView study →}.

A water-soluble melanin complex improved insulin sensitivity and reduced fat in obese mice ^{10Reference 10Lee et al. · 2014AnimalInsulin-sensitizing and beneficial lipid-metabolic effects of the water-soluble melanin complex from Inonotus obliquus — mouseView study →}. A hot-water extract promoted fat-cell differentiation in vitro and raised PPARγ expression, without binding PPARγ itself ^{11Reference 11Joo et al. · 2010In vitroExtract of Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) stimulates 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation — in vitroView study →}.

Chaga polysaccharides relieved skeletal-muscle insulin resistance through PI3K/AKT and AMPK/ACC1/CPT1 signalling in cells and diabetic mice ^{12Reference 12Guo et al. · 2025In vitroMechanisms of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides in ameliorating lipid-induced skeletal-muscle insulin resistance via PI3K/AKT and AMPK/ACC1/CPT1 — in vitro and animal modelView study →}, and improved blood lipids and gut flora in mice on a high-fat diet ^{14Reference 14Yang et al. · 2025AnimalInonotus obliquus polysaccharides improve hyperlipidaemia — animal modelView study →}.

Gap: no human glucose, HbA1c or lipid outcome exists, and most effects come from isolated fractions or culture broth rather than the whole conk.

5. Anticancer

Inotodiol inhibited the growth of A549 lung cancer cells and induced apoptosis ^{15Reference 15Zhong et al. · 2011In vitroEffects of inotodiol from Inonotus obliquus on the proliferation cycle and apoptotic genes of human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells — in vitroView study →}. Lanostane triterpenoids from the conk were cytotoxic to A549 cells at 1.6–8.4 µM, and moderately so to HT-29, HeLa and L1210 cells ^{16Reference 16Zhao et al. · 2015In vitroTriterpenoids from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitroView study →}. Others were cytotoxic to breast cancer cells at about 8–9 µM ^{17Reference 17Zhao et al. · 2016In vitroChemical constituents from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitroView study →}.

A hot-water extract inhibited HT-29 colon cancer cells by up to 56% at 1 mg/mL ^{18Reference 18Lee et al. · 2009In vitroAntitumor activity of water extract of Inonotus obliquus against HT-29 human colon cancer cells — in vitroView study →}. An extract was active against dog bladder-cancer organoids and slowed the growth of organoid-derived tumours in mice ^{19Reference 19Abugomaa et al. · 2023In vitroAnti-cancer activity of Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) against dog bladder-cancer organoids — in vitro / animal (mouse xenograft)View study →}.

Betulin and betulinic acid are active against many cancer cell lines, including drug-resistant ones ^{29,30,31Reference 29Dehelean et al. · 2012In vitroStudy of the betulin-enriched birch-bark extracts’ effects on human carcinoma cells and ear inflammation — in vitro / animal modelReference 30Fulda · 2008ReviewBetulinic acid for cancer treatment and prevention — reviewReference 31Drag et al. · 2009In vitroComparison of the cytotoxic effects of birch-bark extract, betulin and betulinic acid towards human gastric and pancreatic carcinoma drug-sensitive and drug-resistant cell lines — in vitro}. Both are also found in birch bark, and in chaga they occur at microgram-per-gram levels that vary with the host tree ^{38,39Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}. A study of isolated betulinic acid, or of birch-bark extract, is not a study of chaga.

Gap: the cytotoxic effects need micromolar concentrations of isolated triterpenes. Inotodiol, betulin and betulinic acid were below detection in a chaga infusion and decoction ^{39Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}, and there are no human data.

6. Hepatoprotective

Chaga and three of its compounds, inotodiol, lanosterol and trametenolic acid, reduced fat build-up in the livers of mice on a fatty-liver diet and in liver cells, through the FXR/SHP/SREBP-1c pathway ^{13Reference 13Peng et al. · 2022AnimalInonotus obliquus and its bioactive compounds alleviate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via the FXR/SHP/SREBP-1c axis — mouseView study →}.

Chaga polysaccharides reduced liver fat in mice on a high-fat diet ^{14Reference 14Yang et al. · 2025AnimalInonotus obliquus polysaccharides improve hyperlipidaemia — animal modelView study →}, and protected mice from Toxoplasma-induced liver injury ^{24Reference 24Xu et al. · 2019AnimalThe polysaccharide from Inonotus obliquus protects mice from Toxoplasma gondii-induced liver injury — mouseView study →}.

Gap: animal models only, with no human liver endpoint.

7. Antiviral

In cell culture, chaga extracts inhibited hepatitis C virus ^{22Reference 22Shibnev et al. · 2011In vitroAntiviral activity of Inonotus obliquus fungus extract towards hepatitis C virus in cell cultures — in vitroView study →}, HIV-1 ^{23Reference 23Shibnev et al. · 2015In vitroAntiviral activity of aqueous extracts of the birch fungus Inonotus obliquus on the human immunodeficiency virus — in vitroView study →} and herpes simplex virus 1. The herpes study showed that the extract blocks the virus from entering cells by inhibiting membrane fusion ^{20Reference 20Pan et al. · 2013In vitroAqueous extract from Inonotus obliquus prevents herpes simplex virus entry through inhibition of viral-induced membrane fusion — in vitroView study →}. A purified polysaccharide was active against several feline viruses ^{21Reference 21Tian et al. · 2017In vitroIdentification of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide with broad-spectrum antiviral activity against multi-feline viruses — in vitroView study →}.

Gap: everything here is in vitro. No animal protection study or human data exists.

Mechanisms

Chaga’s water-soluble fractions, the melanin complex, polyphenols and polysaccharides, have been studied for antioxidant activity and for innate immune activation through Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 ^{1,2,4Reference 1Cui et al. · 2005In vitroAntioxidant effect of Inonotus obliquus — in vitroView study →Reference 2Burmasova et al. · 2019In vitroMelanins of Inonotus obliquus: bifidogenic and antioxidant properties — in vitroView study →Reference 4Wold et al. · 2024In vitroFungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity — in vitro (mouse and human macrophages)View study →}.

The lanostane triterpenes, including inotodiol, have been studied for anti-inflammatory, liver and cytotoxic effects at micromolar concentrations. They were not detectable in a chaga infusion or decoction ^{7,13,16,39Reference 7Kou et al. · 2021In vitroAnti-neuroinflammatory polyoxygenated lanostanoids from Chaga mushroom Inonotus obliquus — in vitro (BV-2 microglia)View study →Reference 13Peng et al. · 2022AnimalInonotus obliquus and its bioactive compounds alleviate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via the FXR/SHP/SREBP-1c axis — mouseView study →Reference 16Zhao et al. · 2015In vitroTriterpenoids from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitroView study →Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}.

Clinical Trials

No published efficacy trial of chaga on its own exists. The registered studies test chaga inside multi-ingredient products: an immune and mood supplement (NCT05508529), a stem-cell surveillance study (NCT07127705) and a colorectal-surgery nutraceutical (NCT04821258). A psilocybin study using a chaga extract was withdrawn (NCT05252598). The one completed trial had no chaga-specific efficacy readout.

*Combination product only — no chaga-specific efficacy readout.

Last checked: February 2026.

Phytochemistry

Chaga’s water-soluble fraction contains a melanin complex, the pigment that makes the conk black ^{2,32Reference 2Burmasova et al. · 2019In vitroMelanins of Inonotus obliquus: bifidogenic and antioxidant properties — in vitroView study →Reference 32Babitskaya et al. · 2000Melanin complex of the fungus Inonotus obliquus — analytical study (water-soluble melanin complex)}, together with polysaccharides and polyphenols ^{4,25Reference 4Wold et al. · 2024In vitroFungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity — in vitro (mouse and human macrophages)View study →Reference 25Glamočlija et al. · 2015In vitroChemical characterization and biological activity of Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a medicinal “mushroom” — analytical / in vitro (organic and phenolic acids, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; samples from Finland, Russia and Thailand)View study →}. Conks growing on birch were richer in total polyphenols, flavonols and glucans than conks growing on alder ^{38Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →}. Oxalic acid is the main organic acid, and gallic, protocatechuic and p-hydroxybenzoic acids occur in all samples tested ^{25Reference 25Glamočlija et al. · 2015In vitroChemical characterization and biological activity of Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a medicinal “mushroom” — analytical / in vitro (organic and phenolic acids, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; samples from Finland, Russia and Thailand)View study →}. One sample of chaga powder contained 14.2 g of oxalate per 100 g ^{27Reference 27Lee et al. · 2020Case reportDevelopment of end-stage renal disease after long-term ingestion of Chaga mushroom: case report and review of literature — case report (3 g/day of powder for four years, then 9 g/day for one year)View study →}.

The lanostane triterpenes are led by inotodiol. Estonian conks held about 7,500–9,000 µg/g of inotodiol, with similar amounts on alder and birch and no difference in lanosterol content ^{38Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →}. Other lanostanes include 3β-hydroxylanosta-8,24-dien-21-al ^{34Reference 34Fordjour et al. · 2023ReviewChaga mushroom: a super-fungus with countless facets and untapped potential — review (ethnomycology, distribution, chemistry)View study →}, the inonotusols ^{7Reference 7Kou et al. · 2021In vitroAnti-neuroinflammatory polyoxygenated lanostanoids from Chaga mushroom Inonotus obliquus — in vitro (BV-2 microglia)View study →} and the inonotusanes ^{16,17Reference 16Zhao et al. · 2015In vitroTriterpenoids from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitroView study →Reference 17Zhao et al. · 2016In vitroChemical constituents from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitroView study →}.

Betulin and betulinic acid, which also occur in birch bark, are present at lower levels ^{39Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}. In Estonian conks, betulin ranged from 111 to 159 µg/g. Betulinic acid was 20–132 µg/g on birch and 474–635 µg/g on grey alder ^{38Reference 38Drenkhan et al. · 2022Comparative analyses of bioactive compounds in Inonotus obliquus conks growing on Alnus and Betula — analytical (betulin, betulinic acid, inotodiol, lanosterol by host)View study →}.

Water preparations differ from solvent extracts. In French chaga, betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol were found in an aqueous extract but were below quantification in an infusion and a decoction. French chaga held more betulin and betulinic acid than Ukrainian or Canadian chaga, and Canadian chaga more inotodiol ^{39Reference 39Géry et al. · 2018In vitroChaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction)View study →}.

Studies of isolated betulin or betulinic acid, of birch-bark extracts, or of cultured chaga mycelium should be read separately from studies of the wild conk ^{3,9,29,30,31Reference 3Kim et al. · 2005In vitroImmuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide from submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus — in vitroView study →Reference 9Sun et al. · 2008AnimalAntihyperglycemic and antilipidperoxidative effects of dry matter of culture broth of Inonotus obliquus in alloxan-diabetes mice — animal modelView study →Reference 29Dehelean et al. · 2012In vitroStudy of the betulin-enriched birch-bark extracts’ effects on human carcinoma cells and ear inflammation — in vitro / animal modelReference 30Fulda · 2008ReviewBetulinic acid for cancer treatment and prevention — reviewReference 31Drag et al. · 2009In vitroComparison of the cytotoxic effects of birch-bark extract, betulin and betulinic acid towards human gastric and pancreatic carcinoma drug-sensitive and drug-resistant cell lines — in vitro}.

Constituent Summary

Amounts are per gram of dried conk.

Dosage

Chaga is taken as a hot-water tea or decoction. No trial has established a human dose.

Traditional Dosage

Oxalate sets the limit. Chaga is high in oxalate, and all three published cases of kidney injury followed daily chaga powder over months or years ^{26,27,28Reference 26Kwon et al. · 2022Case reportChaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy manifesting as nephrotic syndrome: a case reportView study →Reference 27Lee et al. · 2020Case reportDevelopment of end-stage renal disease after long-term ingestion of Chaga mushroom: case report and review of literature — case report (3 g/day of powder for four years, then 9 g/day for one year)View study →Reference 28Kikuchi et al. · 2014Case reportChaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy — case reportView study →}. In the case that progressed to kidney failure, the patient had taken 3 g of powder a day for four years, then 9 g a day for a year ^{27Reference 27Lee et al. · 2020Case reportDevelopment of end-stage renal disease after long-term ingestion of Chaga mushroom: case report and review of literature — case report (3 g/day of powder for four years, then 9 g/day for one year)View study →}.

Safety & Pregnancy

Chaga’s oxalate has caused kidney injury in people taking chaga powder daily for months or years. Avoid it with kidney disease or a history of kidney stones, and do not take it at high doses long term.

Full Safety & Interactions Detail

Kidney injury. A 72-year-old woman who took 4–5 teaspoons of chaga powder a day for six months, after surgery for liver cancer, developed oxalate nephropathy and needed dialysis ^{28Reference 28Kikuchi et al. · 2014Case reportChaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy — case reportView study →}. A 69-year-old man who took 10–15 g of powder and 500 mg of vitamin C a day for three months developed acute kidney injury with nephrotic syndrome; his kidney function recovered after dialysis and steroids ^{26Reference 26Kwon et al. · 2022Case reportChaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy manifesting as nephrotic syndrome: a case reportView study →}. A 49-year-old man who took 3 g of powder a day for four years, then 9 g a day for a year, for atopic dermatitis, developed end-stage kidney disease ^{27Reference 27Lee et al. · 2020Case reportDevelopment of end-stage renal disease after long-term ingestion of Chaga mushroom: case report and review of literature — case report (3 g/day of powder for four years, then 9 g/day for one year)View study →}.

Who should avoid it. People with kidney disease, or a history of oxalate or calcium stones, should not take chaga. Others should drink plenty of fluid and avoid high doses over long periods.

Drug interactions. No human interaction or CYP450 study of chaga exists; each caution comes from its activity. Chaga lowers blood sugar in rodents ^{9,12Reference 9Sun et al. · 2008AnimalAntihyperglycemic and antilipidperoxidative effects of dry matter of culture broth of Inonotus obliquus in alloxan-diabetes mice — animal modelView study →Reference 12Guo et al. · 2025In vitroMechanisms of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides in ameliorating lipid-induced skeletal-muscle insulin resistance via PI3K/AKT and AMPK/ACC1/CPT1 — in vitro and animal modelView study →}, so it may add to diabetes medicines. It stimulates macrophages through Toll-like receptors ^{3,4Reference 3Kim et al. · 2005In vitroImmuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide from submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus — in vitroView study →Reference 4Wold et al. · 2024In vitroFungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity — in vitro (mouse and human macrophages)View study →}, which points the wrong way for transplant and autoimmune treatment. An interaction with anticoagulants is often mentioned, but it rests on weak evidence and has not been studied.

References

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2. Burmasova, M. A., Utebaeva, A. A., Sysoeva, E. V., et al. (2019). Melanins of Inonotus obliquus: bifidogenic and antioxidant properties — in vitro. Biomolecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31238558/
3. Kim, Y. O., Han, S. B., Lee, H. W., et al. (2005). Immuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide from submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus — in vitro. Life Sciences. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15970296/
4. Wold, C. W., Christopoulos, P. F., Arias, M. A., et al. (2024). Fungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity — in vitro (mouse and human macrophages). Communications Biology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38396285/
5. Park, Y. M., Won, J. H., Kim, Y. H., et al. (2005). In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of the methanol extract of Inonotus obliquus — animal model. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15905055/
6. Choi, S. Y., Hur, S. J., An, C. S., et al. (2010). Anti-inflammatory effects of Inonotus obliquus in dextran-sodium-sulfate colitis — mouse. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20300439/
7. Kou, R. W., Han, R., Gao, Y. Q., et al. (2021). Anti-neuroinflammatory polyoxygenated lanostanoids from Chaga mushroom Inonotus obliquus — in vitro (BV-2 microglia). Phytochemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33434790/
8. Javed, S., Mitchell, K., Sidsworth, D., et al. (2019). Inonotus obliquus attenuates histamine-induced microvascular inflammation — animal model. PLoS ONE. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31437163/
9. Sun, J. E., Ao, Z. H., Lu, Z. M., et al. (2008). Antihyperglycemic and antilipidperoxidative effects of dry matter of culture broth of Inonotus obliquus in alloxan-diabetes mice — animal model. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18434051/
10. Lee, J. H., & Hyun, C. K. (2014). Insulin-sensitizing and beneficial lipid-metabolic effects of the water-soluble melanin complex from Inonotus obliquus — mouse. Phytotherapy Research. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24615848/
11. Joo, J. I., Kim, D. H., & Yun, J. W. (2010). Extract of Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) stimulates 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation — in vitro. Phytotherapy Research. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21031614/
12. Guo, Y., Xu, N., Meng, Q., et al. (2025). Mechanisms of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides in ameliorating lipid-induced skeletal-muscle insulin resistance via PI3K/AKT and AMPK/ACC1/CPT1 — in vitro and animal model. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40348308/
13. Peng, A., Liu, S., Fang, L., et al. (2022). Inonotus obliquus and its bioactive compounds alleviate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via the FXR/SHP/SREBP-1c axis — mouse. European Journal of Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35278405/
14. Yang, L., Miao, T., Wu, J., et al. (2025). Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides improve hyperlipidaemia — animal model. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40659272/
15. Zhong, X. H., Wang, L. B., & Sun, D. Z. (2011). Effects of inotodiol from Inonotus obliquus on the proliferation cycle and apoptotic genes of human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells — in vitro. Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21359924/
16. Zhao, F., et al. (2015). Triterpenoids from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitro. Fitoterapia. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25542686/
17. Zhao, F., et al. (2016). Chemical constituents from Inonotus obliquus and their antitumor activities — in vitro. Journal of Natural Medicines. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27180084/
18. Lee, S. H., Hwang, H. S., & Yun, J. W. (2009). Antitumor activity of water extract of Inonotus obliquus against HT-29 human colon cancer cells — in vitro. Phytotherapy Research. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19367670/
19. Abugomaa, A., Elbadawy, M., Ishihara, Y., et al. (2023). Anti-cancer activity of Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) against dog bladder-cancer organoids — in vitro / animal (mouse xenograft). Frontiers in Pharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37153767/
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21. Tian, J., et al. (2017). Identification of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide with broad-spectrum antiviral activity against multi-feline viruses — in vitro. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27865960/
22. Shibnev, V. A., Mishin, D. V., Garaev, T. M., et al. (2011). Antiviral activity of Inonotus obliquus fungus extract towards hepatitis C virus in cell cultures — in vitro. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22462058/
23. Shibnev, V. A., Garaev, T. M., Finogenova, M. P., et al. (2015). Antiviral activity of aqueous extracts of the birch fungus Inonotus obliquus on the human immunodeficiency virus — in vitro. Voprosy Virusologii. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26182655/
24. Xu, L., Sang, R., Yu, Y., et al. (2019). The polysaccharide from Inonotus obliquus protects mice from Toxoplasma gondii-induced liver injury — mouse. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30445083/
25. Glamočlija, J., Ćirić, A., Nikolić, M., et al. (2015). Chemical characterization and biological activity of Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a medicinal “mushroom” — analytical / in vitro (organic and phenolic acids, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; samples from Finland, Russia and Thailand). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25576897/
26. Kwon, O., Kim, Y., Paek, J. H., et al. (2022). Chaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy manifesting as nephrotic syndrome: a case report. Medicine (Baltimore). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35451393/
27. Lee, S., Lee, H. Y., Park, Y., et al. (2020). Development of end-stage renal disease after long-term ingestion of Chaga mushroom: case report and review of literature — case report (3 g/day of powder for four years, then 9 g/day for one year). Journal of Korean Medical Science. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32419395/
28. Kikuchi, Y., et al. (2014). Chaga mushroom-induced oxalate nephropathy — case report. Clinical Nephrology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23149251/
29. Dehelean, C. A., Şoica, C., Ledeţi, I., et al. (2012). Study of the betulin-enriched birch-bark extracts’ effects on human carcinoma cells and ear inflammation — in vitro / animal model. Chemistry Central Journal, 6(1), 137.
30. Fulda, S. (2008). Betulinic acid for cancer treatment and prevention — review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 9(6), 1096–1107.
31. Drag, M., Surowiak, P., Drag-Zalesinska, M., et al. (2009). Comparison of the cytotoxic effects of birch-bark extract, betulin and betulinic acid towards human gastric and pancreatic carcinoma drug-sensitive and drug-resistant cell lines — in vitro. Molecules, 14(4), 1639–1651.
32. Babitskaya, V. G., Scherba, V. V., & Ikonnikova, N. V. (2000). Melanin complex of the fungus Inonotus obliquus — analytical study (water-soluble melanin complex). Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology, 36(4), 377–381.
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35. Prakofjewa, J., Sartori, M., Kalle, R., et al. (2024). “But how true that is, I do not know”: the influence of written sources on the medicinal use of fungi across the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union — ethnomycological field study. IMA Fungus, 15(1), 22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39103962/
36. Kuo, M. (2020). Inonotus obliquus — species description (sclerotium, hosts, sexual stage). MushroomExpert.com. https://www.mushroomexpert.com/inonotus_obliquus.html
37. Species Fungorum (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew). Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát 1942 — accepted name and synonymy. https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=315905
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39. Géry, A., Dubreule, C., André, V., et al. (2018). Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a future potential medicinal fungus in oncology? A chemical study and a comparison of the cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) — analytical / in vitro (betulin, betulinic acid and inotodiol in extracts, infusion and decoction). Integrative Cancer Therapies, 17(3), 832–843. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29484963/
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