Bael

Bilva’s main action is grahi: an absorbent, binding drug that firms the stool and checks diarrhoea (atisara) and dysentery (pravahika). It is also deepana (kindles the digestive fire) and pachana (aids digestion), so it is used as a digestive as well as an anti-diarrhoeal.

Its heating, astringent and drying qualities are said to pacify Kapha and Vata. The unripe fruit is preferred for acute loose stools and the ripe fruit for depletion and constipation. The root enters Dashamula for Vata disorders and fever.

Siddha practice uses the plant, as Vilvam, for bowel complaints and dysentery, and as a digestive and a remedy for fever.

Unani and folk practice use bael for diarrhoea, indigestion, intestinal worms and diabetes, and as a general tonic.

A hot water decoction of dried unripe fruit showed only limited direct antibacterial activity. It did markedly reduce the adherence of enteropathogenic E. coli and the invasion of enteroinvasive E. coli and Shigella, interfered with the production and binding of cholera toxin and heat-labile toxin, and was active against Giardia and rotavirus ^{1Reference 1Brijesh S et al et al. · 2009In vitroStudies on the antidiarrhoeal activity of Aegle marmelos unripe fruit: validating its traditional usage — [in vitro]View study →}.

In animals the unripe-fruit extract slowed gastrointestinal transit and reduced castor-oil-induced fluid accumulation, antagonising acetylcholine-, histamine- and serotonin-evoked gut contraction ^{2Reference 2Dhuley JN · 2003Investigation on the gastroprotective and antidiarrhoeal properties of Aegle marmelos unripe fruit extract — [animal]View study →}.

A fruit lectin with N-acetylgalactosamine specificity blocks Shigella adherence and invasion of colonic cells ^{4Reference 4Raja SB et al et al. · 2011In vitroIsolation and partial characterisation of a novel lectin from Aegle marmelos fruit and its effect on adherence and invasion of Shigellae to HT29 cells — [in vitro]View study →}. The aqueous extract restores Shigella susceptibility to β-lactam antibiotics by altering porin channels ^{5Reference 5Raja SB et al. · 2008In vitroDifferential expression of ompC and ompF in multidrug-resistant Shigella dysenteriae and Shigella flexneri by aqueous extract of Aegle marmelos, altering its susceptibility toward beta-lactam antibiotics — [in vitro]View study →}, and its furanocoumarin imperatorin inhibits the pathogen’s periplasmic Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase, weakening its resistance to host phagocytosis ^{6Reference 6Raja SB et al et al. · 2011In vitroImperatorin a furocoumarin inhibits periplasmic Cu-Zn SOD of Shigella dysenteriae their by modulates its resistance towards phagocytosis during host pathogen interaction — [in vitro]View study →}.

Against multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhi, the methanol extract ranked among the strongest of 54 Ayurvedic plant extracts screened in vitro ^{3Reference 3Rani P et al. · 2004In vitroAntimicrobial evaluation of some medicinal plants for their anti-enteric potential against multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi — [in vitro]View study →}, and decoctions enhanced intracellular killing of enterotoxigenic E. coli by macrophages at low concentrations ^{7Reference 7Birdi TJ et al. · 2014In vitroBactericidal Effect of Selected Antidiarrhoeal Medicinal Plants on Intracellular Heat-Stable Enterotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli — [in vitro]View study →}.

Gap: Every study is in vitro or in animals. There is no human trial in acute infectious diarrhoea.

Glucose-lowering is consistent across rodent models, and this is the only bael indication with human data. Methanolic leaf extract cut blood glucose by about 54% over twelve days in alloxan-diabetic rats while restoring antioxidant enzymes ^{8Reference 8Sabu MC et al. · 2004Antidiabetic activity of Aegle marmelos and its relationship with its antioxidant properties — [animal]View study →}.

In a type 2 model both leaf and fruit extracts improved insulin resistance and β-cell function, pointing to an insulin-sensitising effect ^{9Reference 9Mudi SR et al et al. · 2017AnimalEffect of aqueous extract of Aegle marmelos fruit and leaf on glycemic, insulinemic and lipidemic status of type 2 diabetic model rats — [animal]View study →}.

Leaf extract also prevented onset of insulin resistance in fructose-fed rats by restoring PI3K/Akt signalling ^{11Reference 11Mathur R et al et al. · 2017AnimalAegle marmelos impedes onset of insulin resistance syndrome in rats provided with drinking fructose from weaning to adulthood stages of development - a mechanistic study — [animal]View study →}, and an alkaloid-free polyphenol-rich leaf extract lowered glucose while restoring antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status in diabetic mice ^{10Reference 10Ibrahim M et al et al. · 2022AnimalAnalysis of polyphenols in Aegle marmelos leaf and ameliorative efficacy against diabetic mice through restoration of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status — [animal]View study →}.

In vitro, leaf extract inhibits the carbohydrate-digesting enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase ^{13Reference 13Venkatesan S et al et al. · 2024In vitroPhytochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Anti-inflammatory Properties of Aegle marmelos and Its Validation in an In-Vitro Cell Model — [in vitro]View study →}.

A small human RCT (60 people with type 2 diabetes, 8 weeks of leaf juice) reported falls in fasting glucose, HbA1c and post-meal glucose. It was single-centre and not rigorously blinded ^{12Reference 12Nigam et al. · 2019RCTAegle marmelos leaf juice as a complementary therapy to control type 2 diabetes: randomised controlled trial in Gujarat, India — RCTView study →}.

Gap: The single human RCT is small and methodologically weak, and the animal work uses leaf and fruit extracts rather than a standardised product. The size and durability of the effect in people are not established.

Bael protects the stomach lining across several independent rodent ulcer models, using both fruit stages. Unripe-fruit extract significantly reduced ethanol-induced gastric lesions (though not restraint- or indomethacin-induced ones) ^{2Reference 2Dhuley JN · 2003Investigation on the gastroprotective and antidiarrhoeal properties of Aegle marmelos unripe fruit extract — [animal]View study →}, and dose-dependently protected against aspirin-induced gastro-duodenal ulceration through antioxidant mechanisms, raising mucosal thickness, superoxide dismutase and catalase ^{22Reference 22Das SK et al. · 2012AnimalThe protective role of Aegle marmelos on aspirin-induced gastro-duodenal ulceration in albino rat model: a possible involvement of antioxidants — [animal]View study →}.

Ripe-fruit pulp raised gastric enterochromaffin-cell counts and serotonin content to thicken protective mucus ^{23Reference 23Singh P et al. · 2015Gastric mucosal protection by aegle marmelos against gastric mucosal damage: role of enterochromaffin cell and serotonin — [animal]View study →}, dried ripe-fruit extract protected against ethanol-induced injury comparably to ranitidine ^{24Reference 24Imran H et al et al. · 2022Dry ripe fruit of Aegle marmelos as anti-ulcer agent against ethanol induced gastric mucosal injury — [animal]View study →}, and unripe-fruit extract attenuated Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress and acid secretion in rats ^{25Reference 25Ramakrishna YG et al et al. · 2015AnimalAegle marmelos fruit extract attenuates Helicobacter pylori Lipopolysaccharide induced oxidative stress in Sprague Dawley rats — [animal]View study →}.

Antioxidant activity runs through most of bael’s other effects. The isolated furanocoumarin marmelosin shows potent radical-scavenging and inhibits TNF-α-driven inflammatory and tumour markers in vitro ^{14Reference 14Pynam H et al. · 2018In vitroAntioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of marmelosin from Bael (Aegle marmelos L.); Inhibition of TNF-α mediated inflammatory/tumor markers — [in vitro]View study →}, and a marmelosin-rich extract protected HepG2 liver cells from hexavalent-chromium-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis by regulating the Gadd45 pathway ^{15Reference 15Katram N et al et al. · 2021In vitroAegle marmelos extract rich in marmelosin exacted ameliorative effect against chromium-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis through regulation of Gadd45 in HepG2 cell line — [in vitro]View study →}.

Plant extracts restore superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione in diabetic, ulcerated and irradiated tissue ^{8,22Reference 8Sabu MC et al. · 2004Antidiabetic activity of Aegle marmelos and its relationship with its antioxidant properties — [animal]View study →Reference 22Das SK et al. · 2012AnimalThe protective role of Aegle marmelos on aspirin-induced gastro-duodenal ulceration in albino rat model: a possible involvement of antioxidants — [animal]View study →}, and leaf extract shows direct DPPH and FRAP radical-scavenging capacity in vitro ^{13Reference 13Venkatesan S et al et al. · 2024In vitroPhytochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Anti-inflammatory Properties of Aegle marmelos and Its Validation in an In-Vitro Cell Model — [in vitro]View study →}.

Leaf extracts inhibit carrageenan-induced paw oedema and cotton-pellet granuloma in rats, with measurable analgesic (reduced paw-licking) and antipyretic effects ^{26Reference 26Arul V et al. · 2005Studies on the anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic properties of the leaves of Aegle marmelos Corr — [animal]View study →}. At the molecular level, marmelosin suppresses TNF-α-mediated inflammatory signalling and related tumour markers in vitro ^{14Reference 14Pynam H et al. · 2018In vitroAntioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of marmelosin from Bael (Aegle marmelos L.); Inhibition of TNF-α mediated inflammatory/tumor markers — [in vitro]View study →}.

A growing group of rodent studies extends bael’s gut use from acute diarrhoea to chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Ethanolic fruit-pulp extract reduced colonic damage, myeloperoxidase and lipid peroxidation while restoring antioxidants in TNBS- and acetic-acid-induced colitis ^{16,17Reference 16Ghatule RR et al et al. · 2014Protective effects of Aegle marmelos fruit pulp on 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced experimental colitis — [animal]View study →Reference 17Gautam MK et al et al. · 2013Healing effects of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa fruit extract on experimental colitis — [animal]View study →}, and unripe-fruit extract dose-dependently lowered disease activity and protected mast cells in acetic-acid and indomethacin models ^{18Reference 18Behera JP et al et al. · 2012Effect of aqueous extract of Aegle marmelos unripe fruit on inflammatory bowel disease — [animal]View study →}.

Mechanistic work points to the alkaloid aegeline, which attenuated TNBS colitis by suppressing the NF-κB-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome ^{19Reference 19Shah B et al. · 2024AnimalAegeline attenuates TNBS-induced colitis by suppressing the NFƙB-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome pathway in mice — [animal]View study →}.

A phospholipid-complexed extract lowered TNF-α and IL-6 in DSS colitis ^{20Reference 20Swami PG et al. · 2025AnimalEffect of Aegle marmelos Extract-Phospholipid Complexes in Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Ulcerative Colitis in Rats — [animal]View study →}, and a fruit extract restored the intestinal mucosal barrier and remodelled the gut microbiota in DSS colitis, with efficacy differing between fruit morphotypes ^{21Reference 21Sahu M et al et al. · 2025AnimalAegle marmelos effectively attenuates DSS-induced colitis by restoring intestinal mucosal barrier and alleviating inflammation through modulation of gut microbiota in mice — [animal]View study →}.

Gap: Every colitis study is in rodents, there is no human IBD trial, and preparations and doses vary widely. Results also differed between fruit morphotypes ^{21Reference 21Sahu M et al et al. · 2025AnimalAegle marmelos effectively attenuates DSS-induced colitis by restoring intestinal mucosal barrier and alleviating inflammation through modulation of gut microbiota in mice — [animal]View study →}, so extracts from different trees may not behave alike.

Bael has a large, internally consistent radioprotection literature, mostly from one research group. Oral or intraperitoneal leaf and fruit extracts given before gamma irradiation reduced radiation-sickness symptoms and lethality in mice, protecting both gastrointestinal and blood-forming tissues ^{29,30Reference 29Jagetia GC et al. · 2005AnimalRadioprotection by oral administration of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa in vivo — [animal]View study →Reference 30Jagetia GC et al. · 2004AnimalFruit extract of Aegle marmelos protects mice against radiation-induced lethality — [animal]View study →}. They preserved haemoglobin, leukocyte and lymphocyte counts and spleen colony-forming units ^{31Reference 31Jagetia GC et al et al. · 2006AnimalEffects of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa on the peripheral blood and small intestine of mice exposed to gamma radiation — [animal]View study →}, and cut radiation-induced micronuclei and chromosome damage in mouse bone marrow ^{32Reference 32Jagetia GC et al. · 2007AnimalInhibition of radiation-induced clastogenicity by Aegle marmelos (L.) correa in mice bone marrow exposed to different doses of gamma-radiation — [animal]View study →} and cultured human peripheral-blood lymphocytes ^{28Reference 28Jagetia GC et al. · 2003In vitroEvaluation of the radioprotective effect of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa in cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes exposed to different doses of gamma-radiation: a micronucleus study — [in vitro]View study →}.

Leaf extract was non-toxic up to a single 1750 mg/kg dose while conferring protection at far lower doses ^{33Reference 33Jagetia GC et al. · 2004AnimalEvaluation of the radioprotective effect of bael leaf (Aegle marmelos) extract in mice — [animal]View study →}, and the body of work has been reviewed as a candidate dietary radioprotector for cancer radiotherapy ^{27Reference 27Baliga MS et al et al. · 2010ReviewRadioprotective effects of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Bael): a concise review — [review]View study →}.

Gap: The evidence comes largely from a single group, almost entirely in mice or in vitro, and uses an extract given before exposure. There is no human radiotherapy data.

Bael protects the liver against several chemical toxins in rodents. A 70% ethanol leaf extract (standardised on rutin) reduced carbon-tetrachloride-induced liver injury, with the effect augmented by co-administration of piperine ^{34Reference 34Rathee D et al. · 2018AnimalAugmentation of hepatoprotective potential of Aegle marmelos in combination with piperine in carbon tetrachloride model in wistar rats — [animal]View study →}, and dietary inclusion of bael fruit blunted cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity by restoring antioxidant enzymes ^{35Reference 35Chandel SS et al et al. · 2018AnimalModulatory Effect of Dietary Inclusion of Aegle marmelos Fruits against Cisplatin - Induced Hepatotoxicity In Wistar Rats — [animal]View study →}.

At the cellular level a marmelosin-rich extract protected HepG2 cells from chromium-induced oxidative apoptosis ^{15Reference 15Katram N et al et al. · 2021In vitroAegle marmelos extract rich in marmelosin exacted ameliorative effect against chromium-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis through regulation of Gadd45 in HepG2 cell line — [in vitro]View study →}.

Preclinical anticancer work spans whole-animal and cell-line studies. Ethanolic fruit-pulp extract reduced tumour burden in DMBA-induced rat breast cancer ^{36Reference 36Akhouri V et al. · 2020AnimalTherapeutic effect of Aegle marmelos fruit extract against DMBA induced breast cancer in rats — [animal]View study →}, and fruit extract suppressed chemically induced mouse skin papillomas while restoring antioxidant defences ^{37Reference 37Agrawal A et al. · 2011AnimalChemically induced skin carcinogenesis in mice and its prevention by Aegle marmelos (an Indian medicinal plant) fruit extract — [animal]View study →}.

Leaf extracts and fractions were antiproliferative across lung, colon, ovary, prostate, leukaemia and breast cell lines ^{38Reference 38Bhatti R et al et al. · 2013In vitroPharmacognostic standardisation and antiproliferative activity of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa leaves in various human cancer cell lines — [in vitro]View study →}.

A sesquiterpene-rich (β-caryophyllene) Nepalese leaf essential oil was cytotoxic to pancreatic, colon, lung and ovarian lines ^{39Reference 39Pant P et al et al. · 2019In vitroSesquiterpene rich essential oil from Nepalese Bael tree (Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa) as potential antiproliferative agent — [in vitro]View study →}.

Two new cytotoxic furoquinoline alkaloids were isolated from the leaves ^{40Reference 40Mohammed MMD et al et al. · 2016In vitroTwo new cytotoxic furoquinoline alkaloids isolated from Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Correa — [in vitro]View study →}.

Fruit extract lessened isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction markers (C-reactive protein, homocysteine, cardiac lipid peroxidation) in rats ^{47Reference 47Krushna GS et al et al. · 2017AnimalIn vivo and molecular docking studies using whole extract and phytocompounds of Aegle marmelos fruit protective effects against Isoproterenol-induced Myocardial infarction in rats — [animal]View study →}, and the alkaloid aegeline was independently cardioprotective in the same isoproterenol model ^{48Reference 48Alzarea SI et al et al. · 2026Aegeline mitigates isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction: insights from biochemical, histopathological, and in silico studies — [animal]View study →}. Aqueous leaf extract lowered total cholesterol and improved the lipid profile in rats ^{49Reference 49Asghar N et al et al. · 2018Phytochemical composition, antilipidemic and antihypercholestrolemic perspectives of Bael leaf extracts — [animal]View study →}.

Topical and oral bael extracts accelerated healing in rodent wound models. A methanolic root-extract ointment improved wound contraction, closure time and tensile strength in excision and incision wounds, comparably to nitrofurazone ^{41Reference 41Jaswanth A et al et al. · 2001AnimalEffect of root extract of Aegle marmelos on dermal wound healing in rats — [animal]View study →}, and fruit-pulp extract shortened epithelialisation time and raised wound-breaking strength across excision, incision and dead-space models, with increased antioxidants in granulation tissue ^{42Reference 42Gautam MK et al et al. · 2014AnimalIn vivo healing potential of Aegle marmelos in excision, incision, and dead space wound models — [animal]View study →}.

A total-sterols fraction and isolated stigmasterol from the leaf produced antidepressant-like effects in mouse behavioural tests ^{43Reference 43Ghosh S et al et al. · 2022Evaluation of the Antidepressant-like Effect of Total Sterols Fraction and Stigmasterol Isolated from Leaves of Aegle marmelos and Possible Mechanism( s) of Action Involved — [animal]View study →}, and a leaf extract reduced depression-like behaviour in chronically stressed rats ^{44Reference 44Sharma A et al et al. · 2022AnimalAntidepressive-Like Effect of Aegle marmelos Leaf Extract in Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress-Induced Depression-Like Behaviour in Rats — [animal]View study →}.

Aegeline mimicked a yeast SNARE protein to suppress α-synuclein and Bax toxicity in a yeast screen relevant to Parkinson’s disease ^{45Reference 45Derf A et al et al. · 2019In vitroAegeline, a natural product from the plant Aegle marmelos, mimics the yeast SNARE protein Sec22p in suppressing α-synuclein and Bax toxicity in yeast — [in vitro]View study →}, and protected against LPS-induced memory dysfunction in rats by modulating hippocampal cholinergic and cytokine pathways ^{46Reference 46Alharbi KS et al et al. · 2026Neuroprotective effects of aegeline against LPS-induced memory dysfunction: involvement of hippocampal cholinergic/proinflammatory cytokines receptor modulation and insilico insight — [animal]View study →}.

Blood sugar. Bael lowers blood glucose in animals and in one small human trial ^{8,12Reference 8Sabu MC et al. · 2004Antidiabetic activity of Aegle marmelos and its relationship with its antioxidant properties — [animal]View study →Reference 12Nigam et al. · 2019RCTAegle marmelos leaf juice as a complementary therapy to control type 2 diabetes: randomised controlled trial in Gujarat, India — RCTView study →}, so it may add to the effect of insulin and other diabetes medicines.

Furanocoumarins. Bael carries furanocoumarins, like grapefruit. In laboratory tests with human liver enzymes, bael fruit extract and its furanocoumarin marmelosin inhibited CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, two enzymes that clear many common drugs, while CYP2D6, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 were unaffected ^{59Reference 59Manda VK et al. · 2016In vitroInhibition of CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 by Aegle marmelos and its constituents — [in vitro]View study →}.

No interaction with drugs broken down by these enzymes has been tested in animals or people. No interaction with anticoagulants has been tested either.

Aegeline supplements. In 2013 a reformulated weight-loss supplement, OxyELITE Pro, that contained aegeline was linked to an outbreak of liver injury in the United States ^{55Reference 55Klontz KC et al. · 2015Case reportThe Role of Adverse Event Reporting in the FDA Response to a Multistate Outbreak of Liver Disease Associated with a Dietary Supplement — [case series]View study →}. That product used aegeline as an isolated ingredient in a multi-ingredient formula, which is a different thing from bael fruit eaten as food or taken as a traditional preparation.